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英文資料
CIM Industry Overview
1. Introduction
"Computer-integrated manufacturing" is the terra used to describe the computer automation of the factory, with all processes functioning under computer control and only digital information tying them together. In CIM, the need for paper is eliminated and so also are most human jobs. CIM is the ostensible evolutionary outcome of computer of computer-aided design and drafting and computer-aided manufacturing (CADD/CAM).
Why is CIM desirable? Because it reduces the human computer of manufacturing and thereby relievers the process of its most expensive and error-prone ingredient. But CIM is, for the most part, an unrealized dream. The application of computer to the activities that make up the manufacturing process occurred in bottom-up fashion; that is, the potential utility of automation was recognized at the working level of organizations long before it came to the attention of management. CADD/CAM was first applied to numerical control (NC) programming on the production side of the factory and to analysis on the engineering side. Later, it began to be used in detail drafting, and now it is being applied to conceptual design. The result has been "islands of automation" in which individual processes are automated without concern for compatibility with one another. The scotch-after productivity has been deferred.
What decisions must management makes to implement CIM? Automation in the factory is still very much a process of Enhancing islands of automation, and few efforts have been made toward their integration’s. The situation will persist until management deals with the four greatest obstacles to integrated
Automation:
The pressure of the pyramid
The prerogatives of the priesthood
The personality of the power tools
The powerlessness of the person
2. The Pressure of the Pyramid
How does a factory work7 Figure 1 is a simple schematic diagram of the
Figure 1 Factory function block diagram
entities and processes. Most CADD vendors and many manufacturing executives believe that this diagram is reasonable abstraction of the factories with witch they come in contact. It depicts well-defined areas of responsibility and authority with simple flows of information, goods, and services. The automation of such a factor would be fast, easy, and interesting.... even enjoyable.
However, the diagram-has a slight flaw. This minor imperfection does little to decrease the popularity of the viewpoint represented by the diagram, but its elucidation will yield important insights into our first CIM obstacle. The flaw is simply this: The diagram is meaningless because it bears no relation to reality. It is worth as much to an organizational analyst as Fig 2 is worth a physician.
In reality, the factory is a seething caldron of emotion, perspiration, nobility,
Figure 2 human body functional block diagrams
foolishness, greed, sincerity, selfishness, idealism, vanity, and generosity. It is a
far uglier sight than a beehive or an anthill, and it is far more difficult to comprehend. Its actual beehive or an anthill, and it is far more difficult to comprehend. Its actual operation is almost impossible to diagram because it is shrouded in a fog raised by the heat of human activity.
How the factory got to be that way is easy to understand: It simply a grew form its origins in an unplanned way. Each added element.... a new machine, new management, a new product line.... caused some turmoil while the organization adjusted to it and ultimately became part of a new equilibrium. Additions that did not "take" were eliminated, or they caused the organization to collapse.
Since CIM involves computers, the computer department is often in the vanguard of CIM implementation planning. Although computer professionals like to think of organizational growth as crystalline, with pure geometric accretions accumulating in well-ordered quanta, the propagation of human organizations is usually messy. Organizations are made up of people, each of whom is self-seeking and self-centered. In addition to their assigned responsibilities and tasks, they develop relationships and procedures to protect and further their interests.
The relationship and procedures are mot documented; not are they derived form the organization's explicit or implicit policies. But no modification of the organization can succeed without taking them into account, just as no surgery can be successfully performed without taking into account the complex network involved in the functioning of the human body.
Almost all organization charts are hierarchical; there is open person at the top and there are many at the bottom of the hierarchy, that is the explicit aspect of the pyramid the hidden side of it comprises the self seeking behavior patterns of the individuals.
Natural principles also are at work. There is the principle of inertia-things tend to stay the way they are. People don't like change, and they will act to keep things changing. At each level the organizational pyramid, equilibrium is maintained. Most organizations start with some consonance between the goals of the organizations and the goals of the individual, but the pyramid always goes into rigidity. Maintaining equilibrium becomes more important than pursuing the goals of the organization. This is the pressure of the pyramid.
3. The Prerogatives of the Priesthood
Computers intimidate people who have not grown up with them. Initially costing millions of dollars and accessible only to specialists, these machines acquired mystical reputations. The metaphors of the computer room as a temple, and of longhaired social misfit programmers as priests are clinches.
But people best suited to working with computers are those who see situations as collections of black-and-white phenomena, yes-or-no decisions. The best programmers are known to be asocial, and they often are antisocial. When these professionals are called upon to create a model of the factory, the model usually winds up having many of the attributes of computer systems. Human needs and idiosyncrasies are generally left out.
Computers have thoroughly infested most companies, but workers are still mystified and frightened by them. The spread and use of computers are still planned and dictated largely by computer professionals, who hate not learned to understand the needs of users. Technical issues overshadow functional considerations in many system design and equipment the arguments of the technocratic. They ate indisputable because of the prerogatives of the priesthood.
4. The Personality of the Power Tools
Achieving CIM requires harmonious interaction with computer at many levels. Most factory personnel will need intensive training in dealing with the particular systems they will encounter. Design engineers must use CADD and CAM systems. However, the computer system in CIM installations will come from a variety o~ vendors. He ways in which users interact with them will be many and varied, and they will necessarily be inconsistent with one another. This raises a tremendous barrier to CIM. For people to use the systems, the personality as the power tools must be congenial and consistent.
5. The Powerlessness of the Person
People need to feel worthwhile. Put them in a situation in which they feel that they have no effect on the organization and they will react with rebellion or depression. In the pyramid of organizational hierarchy, only those neat the top have much influence on the direction of the organization.
Organizations so segment tasks that individuals seldom have the opportunity to see anything through to completion. Products and ideas are thus orphaned and left to fend for themselves. At the same time workers are bereaved of their brainchildren, and they feel sterile and frustrated. As the organization grow rigid with age, people in it feel more an more impotent. Many are impelled to leave. Those who remaining the ossifying structure are concerned with issues of seniority, turf, and pensions.... not productivity.
6. Plucking Productivity from the jaws of Organization
"More output with fewer resources" is a common definition of productivity improvement. It is often applied to the declared goals of organizations. But translating it into action steps for individuals is more than an exercise in management by objectives (MBO); it requires the full cooperation and participation of the individual in the translation process. Without cooperation, the goal cannot be achieved; without participation, there can be no cooperation. The individual must have sense of ownership to adopt the goal.
The four obstacles described above must be overcome if the participation of the individual is to be obtained. First, the pressure of the pyramid must be relaxed or avoided. In Intrapreneuring, Guilford Pinched III discusses the benefits of working within organizations with entrepreneurial techniques. “When any CEO calls for innovations, very little happens. This is not because of a lack of good ideas but because of the working within organizations with entrepreneurial techniques. “When any CEO calls for innovation, very little happens. This is not because of a lack of good ideas but because of the difficulties your difficulty your people have in implementing them. If you are not hearing good ideas, it is because they are blocked or sanitized before they reach you."
Pinchot recommends giving individuals access to the corporate elision so that they can know how to direct their creativity. He then suggests that innovators be rewarded and given encouragement, authority, and resources from what most manufacturers currently do. Without passionate advocates, it cannot become reality. Pyramid rule must be relaxed.
Second, the prerogatives of the priesthood must be abridged. The overriding considerations in the analysis and acquisition of computer based systems must be functional, not technical. Adherence to computer standards must be considered only within the context of the application, not a management upon ad means to ends, not as ends unto themselves.
Third, the personality of the power tools.... the "faces “systems present to user must be congenial and consistent. We must reduce the amount of training and education that C1M will necessitate by working on the least expensive components: computers. People are expansible, and training is expensive; software is inexpensive by comparison. Today's CADD systems are largely uncongenial. Their personalities reflect those of their programmers, who have little in common with the system users. They are consequently head to learn and hard to use.
In Your natural Gifts, Margaret Broadly discusses some of the findings of the Johnson O'Connor Research Center.... Human Engineering Laboratory. This organization has loud, after several decades of study, that people have genetically determined aptitudes. These aptitudes can redeveloped, but not learned.... And people with unexercised aptitudes are bound to feel frustrated. The cluster of aptitudes exhibited by successful engineers includes high structural visualization, good proportions appraisal, and good musical aptitudes. Surprisingly, howler engineers often have low capacities for inductive reasoning. Thus, they are particularly averse to complicated computer tools, which must be "figured out." The engineer's computing tools must be self-evident.
Science there is no generic engineering design methodology, operating procedures vary greatly from one vendor to another. In fact operating procedures often vary within the confines of a single system: Solid-modeling modules are different in their operation from other parts of most CADD systems. Computer graphics comes to the rescue in two important ways, it provides a consistent definition of the product that endures throughout the design, production, and delivery process, and offers a much Boaster information bandwidth for person-machine communications.
Fourth, we must empower the individual within the organization to take up the corporate vision. We must provide room for entrepreneurs to seek and achieve fulfillment of their personal needs in such a way that they will in so doing, further the goals of the organization. We will not get to CIM otherwise.
7. chnology: Is it Ready for CIM?
In the minds of many manufacturing executives, the implementation of CIM awaits the development of proper technologies. But that is not true. Current CADD/CAM technology is equal to the task of fully automating the factory, but it is rarely applied to an entire manufacturing facility. Management has yet to be convinced of the validity of the automation vendors' productivity improvement promises. Computers are employed only in situations in which the short-term benefits are measurable and are likely to be realized. This has contributed to the isolation of the islands of automation.
Integration is still rare. Even the organizations that use ADD/CAM extensively employ hard-copy drawings. In most companies, departments using CADD/CAM must produce hard copy because other departments have no way to deal with digital information. The capabilities of CADD/CAM systems are thus constrained to fit within largely manual operations, and much attention is consequently given to issues such as plot quality, that is irrelevant to CIM.
中文翻譯
計(jì)算機(jī)集成化制造的工業(yè)總看法
一、 導(dǎo)論
“計(jì)算機(jī)集成化制造”(CIM)是一種只靠數(shù)字信息結(jié)合的，在計(jì)算機(jī)控制下所有過(guò)程運(yùn)行的工程完全自動(dòng)化。在計(jì)算機(jī)集成化制造中，不需要紙張，人類工作的大部分也不需要。計(jì)算機(jī)集成化制造是計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)和繪圖(CADD)和計(jì)算機(jī)輔助制造明顯進(jìn)化的結(jié)果。
為什么需要計(jì)算機(jī)集成化制造呢?因?yàn)樗鼫p少了制造活動(dòng)的人類組成部分，從而減少了制造過(guò)程中多數(shù)成本高且易出錯(cuò)的部分。但是，大體上況，計(jì)算機(jī)集成化制造仍是一個(gè)不可實(shí)現(xiàn)的夢(mèng)想。計(jì)算機(jī)彌補(bǔ)制造過(guò)程活動(dòng)的應(yīng)用，發(fā)生在當(dāng)今時(shí)代。注意之前一直被認(rèn)為處于工作水平。計(jì)算機(jī)復(fù)助設(shè)計(jì)及繪圖和計(jì)算機(jī)輔助制造首先應(yīng)用于工廠生產(chǎn)方面的數(shù)字控制程序和工程方面的分析，后來(lái)，它被用于細(xì)致的繪圖?，F(xiàn)在它被用于理論分析。這中結(jié)果形成了“自動(dòng)化孤島”。在自動(dòng)化中， 單個(gè)過(guò)程是自動(dòng)化的，而沒(méi)有考慮相互之間的和諧性。因此致使生產(chǎn)率進(jìn)展緩慢。
管理人員必須制定什么樣的決策去實(shí)現(xiàn)計(jì)算機(jī)集成化制造呢?工廠中的自動(dòng)化仍是增加“自動(dòng)化孤島”的過(guò)程。并且，很少采取措施使它們?nèi)跒橐惑w。這種形式將那就是在自動(dòng)化的潛在效用引起管理部門的一直持續(xù)到管理人員處理好自動(dòng)化集成的四個(gè)最大障礙：
1．金字塔式的壓力
2．專家的權(quán)利
3．動(dòng)力機(jī)床的性能
4．人的無(wú)能為力
1. 金字塔式的壓力
工廠是怎樣運(yùn)行的?圖 1是務(wù)實(shí)體和過(guò)程的一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單草圖。人多數(shù)計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)及繪圖銷售商和生產(chǎn)的執(zhí)行者都相信，這個(gè)圖表是他們接觸的一個(gè)合理抽象。它用簡(jiǎn)單的信息、物質(zhì)和服務(wù)流宋描述責(zé)任和權(quán)利的范圍，像這樣的工廠的自動(dòng)化將是很快、很有趣、很容易的，甚至是一種享受。
圖1：工廠生產(chǎn)過(guò)程圖
然而，這個(gè)圖表由一點(diǎn)點(diǎn)小缺陷，這個(gè)小缺陷并不會(huì)減少這個(gè)圖表所代表的觀點(diǎn)的普遍性。但它的解釋將對(duì)先前計(jì)算機(jī)集成化制造的障礙產(chǎn)生重要的洞察力，這個(gè)缺點(diǎn)如下：圖表是無(wú)意義的，因?yàn)樗c現(xiàn)實(shí)沒(méi)有聯(lián)系，它對(duì)一個(gè)工廠決策者的作用如圖2對(duì)一個(gè)醫(yī)生的作用。
計(jì)算機(jī)集成化實(shí)現(xiàn)的先頭部隊(duì)。盡管計(jì)算機(jī)專家也愿意把工廠的成長(zhǎng)想象成透明的、可以用幾何圖形表示的，以安排好定量積累的方式增大，但人類組織的繁殖通常是巨大的，工廠是由人們組成的，他們中每一個(gè)追求私利和自私自利，除了他們分的責(zé)任和任務(wù)，他們發(fā)展關(guān)系來(lái)保護(hù)和追求他們的利益。
這種關(guān)系和禮節(jié)沒(méi)有用文件形式證明是合法的，它們沒(méi)有被組織明確的或含蓄的政策所剝奪。但不把它們考慮進(jìn)去，組織的修改不會(huì)成功。沒(méi)有考慮包含在人體內(nèi)的復(fù)雜網(wǎng)絡(luò)，外科手術(shù)不會(huì)成功一樣。幾乎所有的組織圖表都是分等級(jí)的；有一個(gè)人在等級(jí)制度頂端，有許多人在底部，這個(gè)金字塔明顯的方面，金字塔隱含的一面， 包含一個(gè)人追求私利的行為方式。自然原理在這里也起作用，慣性作用一一物體總是保持原有的狀態(tài)。
圖2人體機(jī)能圖示
大部分組織以組織的目標(biāo)和個(gè)人服務(wù)一致性開(kāi)始。但是這個(gè)金字塔總慢慢變僵化，維持平衡變的比追求組織的目標(biāo)更重要，這就是金字塔的壓力。
2. 專家的特權(quán)
計(jì)算機(jī)威脅著那些不了解計(jì)算機(jī)成長(zhǎng)的人們，最初花費(fèi)數(shù)百美元只為專家所理解。這些機(jī)器獲得了神秘的聲譽(yù)。計(jì)算機(jī)被比喻成神，把用玻璃圍起來(lái)的周圍環(huán)境受到控制的計(jì)算機(jī)機(jī) 房比作神廟和把長(zhǎng)頭發(fā)穿著不合身的程序員比作教士是很合理的。
但是使用計(jì)算機(jī)工作的人多時(shí)那些把形式看成黑白現(xiàn)象 作決策的人。最好的程序員由于不與人來(lái)往而著名，他們常常厭惡社交。這些專業(yè)人員被作為工廠的模范時(shí)，這個(gè)模范常常像有計(jì)算機(jī)許多特征一樣。時(shí)時(shí)刻刻認(rèn)得需求和特性都被放出 來(lái)了。
計(jì)算機(jī)已經(jīng)完全應(yīng)用與大多數(shù)公司，但工人仍對(duì)他們感到神秘和害怕，計(jì)算機(jī)的傳播和應(yīng)用仍由計(jì)算機(jī)專家計(jì)劃支配， 這些人還沒(méi)有了理解用戶的需要。技術(shù)問(wèn)題在許多系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)和設(shè)備選擇過(guò)程時(shí)使功能考慮相形見(jiàn)絀，在最后分析時(shí)，沒(méi)有人敢對(duì)專家的論點(diǎn)提出質(zhì)疑，他們時(shí)無(wú)可置疑的是因?yàn)樗麄兙哂袑＜业奶貦?quán)。
3. 動(dòng)力機(jī)床的特性
獲得CIM需要個(gè)層次計(jì)算機(jī)之間的和諧作用，許多工廠的工作人員需要集中培訓(xùn)處理他們將接觸的特殊系統(tǒng)。
例如：設(shè)計(jì)工程師必須使用CADD系統(tǒng)，而制造工程師必須使用ACDD和CAM系統(tǒng)，然而CIM設(shè)備中的計(jì)算機(jī)系統(tǒng)將來(lái)自各個(gè)領(lǐng)域的賣主，用戶同它們相互之間不一致。這對(duì)CIM將產(chǎn)生極大的障礙，對(duì)使用這個(gè)系統(tǒng)的人來(lái)說(shuō)，動(dòng)力機(jī)床的特性，必須是一致的和不變的。
若能們需要感到受尊重，把他們放在一個(gè)他們感到對(duì)工廠沒(méi)有影響的環(huán)境中，他們會(huì)反抗或沮喪。在金字塔的等級(jí)制度中，只有那些頂端附近的人對(duì)工廠的方向有影響。
4. 人類的無(wú)能為力
工廠如此分割任務(wù)以至于個(gè)人很少有機(jī)會(huì)完滿辦好某件事，這樣，他們感到枯躁和灰心，當(dāng)這個(gè)組織隨時(shí)間推移的僵化，人們就感到越來(lái)越軟弱無(wú)力。許多人被迫離開(kāi)，那些仍留下來(lái)的人是關(guān)心職位和養(yǎng)老盒問(wèn)題而不是出產(chǎn)率。
二、挖掘工廠的生產(chǎn)力
用比較少的資源得到較多的產(chǎn)品是生產(chǎn)率提高的一種普通定義。這常常是組織所要求的目標(biāo)。但是，對(duì)于群體來(lái)說(shuō)，把這轉(zhuǎn)化為實(shí)際行動(dòng)比理論上的練習(xí)要難得多。這要求 在轉(zhuǎn)化的過(guò)程中，需要每個(gè)人之間進(jìn)行充分的合作和參與。沒(méi)有合作，目標(biāo)不能實(shí)現(xiàn)；沒(méi)有參與，不能有合作。為了達(dá)到目標(biāo)，每個(gè)人必須有主動(dòng)意識(shí)。
如果個(gè)體的參與被允許的話，有四個(gè)障礙必須克服。首先，等級(jí)的壓力必須被釋放或者被避免。在《企業(yè)家》雜志中，Gifford Pinched描述了各部門企業(yè)技術(shù)在一起工作的效益。“當(dāng)任何一個(gè)首席執(zhí)行官（CEO）要求變革時(shí)，沒(méi)與人會(huì)高興。這不是因?yàn)楹玫乃枷氲娜狈Γ且驗(yàn)樵诟鞑块T企業(yè)技術(shù)的工作”?！爱?dāng)任何一個(gè)首席執(zhí)行官（CEO）要求變革時(shí)，沒(méi)與人會(huì)高興，這不是因?yàn)楹盟枷氲娜鄙俣且驗(yàn)槔щy，你的部下在貫徹策略時(shí)有困難。如果你沒(méi)聽(tīng)到好的主意，是因?yàn)樵谀阒狼氨蛔钃趸蛘弑粌艋恕?
Pinchot建議給每個(gè)人 都應(yīng)參加到集體中去以至于他們能知道如何指導(dǎo)他們的創(chuàng)造性。他也建議變革家應(yīng)該被獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)和被鼓勵(lì)。從大多的制造者中給予權(quán)利和資源。沒(méi)有積極的變革，生產(chǎn)率的提高不能成為現(xiàn)實(shí)，等級(jí)制度必須被消除。
第二，有權(quán)利的人的特權(quán)應(yīng)該取消。在分析不必的考慮和計(jì)算機(jī)基本系統(tǒng)的獲得必須是基本的，不是技術(shù)的。計(jì)算機(jī)的水平必須被認(rèn)為只是應(yīng)用的范圍。
第三，掌握技術(shù)的人和提供給有技術(shù)人的系統(tǒng)必須相協(xié)調(diào)，相一致。必須減少訓(xùn)練和教育的數(shù)量，在工作中，計(jì)算機(jī)集成化制造（CIM）將是必須的，計(jì)算機(jī)不是最昂貴的部件。人是有發(fā)展的，訓(xùn)練是昂貴的；通過(guò)比較，軟件是便宜的,今天的CADD很不協(xié)調(diào)。使用CADD的人們反映，他們與CADD系統(tǒng)很不協(xié)調(diào)。最后，導(dǎo)致很難學(xué)很難用。
Margaret Broadley討論了人類工程師實(shí)驗(yàn)室，Johnson O’Connor研究中心的一些發(fā)現(xiàn)，關(guān)于人類的自然能力，這個(gè)實(shí)驗(yàn)室是很大的，在幾十年的研究以后，發(fā)現(xiàn)人們擁有遺傳的決定了的才能。這種才能能夠發(fā)展，但是不能學(xué)到。對(duì)沒(méi)有練習(xí)天賦的人們一定會(huì)感到沮喪。成功的工程師所顯示出來(lái)的，所以天賦包含清晰度高的結(jié)構(gòu)，恰到好的評(píng)價(jià) ，和好的音樂(lè)天賦，令人驚奇的是，差的工程師在邏輯思維方面有差的能力，這些人特別不愿意用復(fù)雜的計(jì)算機(jī)工具，工程師必須掌握所以的計(jì)算機(jī)工具。
科學(xué)沒(méi)有一般的工程設(shè)計(jì)方法，操作過(guò)程變化很大，事實(shí)上，在一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的系統(tǒng)中，操作系統(tǒng)也常常變化，實(shí)體建模與CADD系統(tǒng)的大部分的操作不同。通過(guò)兩種方式使計(jì)算機(jī)繪圖得以解放出來(lái)，提供產(chǎn)品相一致的定義。
第四，我們必須對(duì)機(jī)構(gòu)里的個(gè)人給予協(xié)作的權(quán)利，我們必須提供給企業(yè)家尋找空間來(lái)滿足他們部下的要求，從而達(dá)到企業(yè)的目標(biāo)。否則，我們就不能實(shí)現(xiàn)計(jì)算機(jī)集成。
三、技術(shù)：對(duì)計(jì)算機(jī)集成（CIM）準(zhǔn)備好了嗎？
在許多制造主管的心中，計(jì)算機(jī)集成（CIM）對(duì)應(yīng)用取決于適當(dāng)技術(shù)的發(fā)展，但是這種思維是不對(duì)的。目前，CADD/CAM技術(shù)與工廠的自動(dòng)化同步發(fā)展，但是，CADD/CAM卻很少應(yīng)用于整個(gè)制造領(lǐng)域，管理者已經(jīng)相信自動(dòng)化可以使生產(chǎn)率有效的提高，計(jì)算機(jī)人員只是被用在短期效益能夠測(cè)量和有可能被實(shí)現(xiàn)的情況中。這引起自動(dòng)化技術(shù)的孤立。
相互間的結(jié)合自由很少，甚至使用CADD/CAM的公司很廣泛地雇傭硬拷貝畫圖。在大多數(shù)的公司中，使用CADD/CAM的部門必須制造出硬拷貝，因?yàn)閯e的部門沒(méi)有處理數(shù)字信息的方法。因此，CADD/CAM系統(tǒng)的應(yīng)用只局限于適合大部分的手工操作，注意力比較多集中于某塊質(zhì)量的提高。這與計(jì)算機(jī)集成（CIM）背道而馳。
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