制定后鋼板彈簧吊耳零件的加工工藝設(shè)計鉆直徑37孔的鉆床夾具
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機(jī)械制造工藝及夾具課程設(shè)計任務(wù)書設(shè)計題目:制定后鋼板彈簧吊耳的加工工藝,鉆37孔的鉆床夾具 設(shè)計要求:1.中批生產(chǎn);2.盡量選用通用夾具。 設(shè)計內(nèi)容:1.填寫設(shè)計任務(wù)書; 2.制訂一個中等零件的加工工藝過程,填寫工 藝過程卡和工序卡各一張; 3.設(shè)計指導(dǎo)教師指定的工序夾具,繪制全套夾具圖紙,要求用計算機(jī)繪圖; 4.編寫設(shè)計說明書一份,按照畢業(yè)論文的格式 寫,要求打印文稿。 班 級 學(xué) 生指導(dǎo)教師 機(jī)械制造基礎(chǔ)課程設(shè)計 設(shè)計題目:制定后鋼板彈簧吊耳零件的加工工藝,設(shè)計鉆37孔的鉆床夾具 班 級: 學(xué) 生: 指導(dǎo)教師: 目 錄 設(shè)計任務(wù)書-1 一.零件的分析 -2 二.工藝規(guī)程設(shè)計(一)確定毛坯的制造形式- 3(二)基面的選擇 - 3(三)制訂工藝路線 - 3(四)機(jī)械加工余量、工序尺寸及毛坯尺寸的確定 -5(五)確定切削用量及基本工時 -6 三.夾具設(shè)計 -11(一)問題的提出 -11(二)卡具設(shè)計 -12 四.參考文獻(xiàn) - 13一 零件的分析零件的工藝分析后鋼板彈簧吊耳共有三組加工表面,現(xiàn)分述如下:1)以37mm孔為中心的加工表面這一組加工表面包括:一個37mm的孔,尺寸為76mm的與37mm孔相垂直的平面,其中主要加工表面為37mm的孔;2)以30mm孔為中的加工表面這一組加工表面包括:兩個30mm的孔,以及尺寸為77與兩個30mm 孔相垂直的內(nèi)平面,以及兩個孔的外表面;3)以10.5mm孔為中心的加工表面這一組加工表面包括:兩個10.5mm的孔二 工藝規(guī)程設(shè)計(一) 確定毛坯的制造形式 零件材料為35鋼,考慮到該零件在汽車中的受力并保證零件的工作可靠性,零件為中批生產(chǎn),因此,毛坯可采用模鍛成型(二) 基面的選擇基準(zhǔn)面選擇是工藝規(guī)程設(shè)計中的重要工作之一。基面選擇的正確與合理,可以使加工質(zhì)量得到保證,生產(chǎn)效率得以提高。否則,加工工藝過程中會問題百出,更有甚者,還會造成零件大批報廢,使生產(chǎn)無法正常進(jìn)行。 (1)粗基準(zhǔn)的選擇。以30mm孔一側(cè)端面為粗基準(zhǔn),以消除,三個自由度,然后加一個輔助支承。 (2)精基準(zhǔn)的選擇。根據(jù)基準(zhǔn)重合和互為基準(zhǔn)原則,選用設(shè)計基準(zhǔn)作為精基準(zhǔn),當(dāng)設(shè)計基準(zhǔn)與工序基準(zhǔn)不重合時,應(yīng)該進(jìn)行尺寸換算。(三)制訂工藝路線 制訂工藝路線的出發(fā)點,應(yīng)當(dāng)是使零件的幾何形狀,尺寸精度及位置精度等技術(shù)要求得到合理的保證。在生產(chǎn)綱領(lǐng)為中批生產(chǎn)的條件下,可以考慮采用萬能性機(jī)床配以專用夾具來提高生產(chǎn)效率。除此以外,還應(yīng)當(dāng)考慮經(jīng)濟(jì)效率,以便使生產(chǎn)成本盡量下降。 1.工藝路線方案一 工序 粗銑37mm孔端面。 工序 精銑37mm孔端面。 工序 擴(kuò),粗鉸,精鉸37mm孔并加工倒角1.545。工序 粗銑30mm孔端面。工序 擴(kuò),粗鉸 30mm孔并加工倒角145工序 粗銑尺寸為77mm的孔端面。工序 精銑尺寸為77mm的孔端面。工序 鉆2- 10.5mm孔。工序 銑寬為4mm的槽工序 去毛刺工序 檢查。 2.工藝路線方案二工序 粗銑37mm孔端面。 工序 粗鏜37mm孔,倒角1.545。 工序 粗銑30mm孔外端面。工序 粗銑30mm孔內(nèi)端面。工序 擴(kuò),粗鉸 30mm孔并加工倒角145。工序 粗鏜37mm孔。工序 半精銑37mm孔端面。工序 半精銑37mm孔端面。工序 鉆2-10.5mm孔。工序 銑寬為4mm的槽工序 去毛刺。工序 檢查。 工藝方案的比較與分析上述兩個工藝方案的特點在于:方案一是先加工37mm孔端面,再以該加工平面為基準(zhǔn)加工其余平面,最后加工各個孔;方案二是先以30mm孔外端面為基準(zhǔn)加工37mm孔端面,再以37mm孔端面為基準(zhǔn)加工其它端面和孔。兩相比較可以看出,方案二遵循互為基準(zhǔn)原則能夠較好的保證加工精度,對設(shè)備要求較低,而方案一工序比較集中,考慮實際設(shè)備條件,可將兩個方案進(jìn)行綜合考慮。具體工藝過程如下:工序 粗銑37mm孔端面。 工序 粗鏜37mm孔,倒角1.545。 工序 粗銑30mm孔外端面。工序 粗銑30mm孔內(nèi)端面。工序 擴(kuò),粗鉸 30mm孔并加工倒角145。工序 粗鏜37mm孔。工序 半精銑37mm孔端面。工序 半精銑37mm孔端面。工序 鉆2-10.5mm孔。工序 銑寬為4mm的槽工序 去毛刺。工序 檢查。(四)機(jī)械加工余量、工序尺寸及毛坯尺寸的確定 “后鋼板彈簧吊耳”零件材料為35鋼,毛坯重量約為2.6Kg,生產(chǎn)類型為中批生產(chǎn),采用鍛造。根據(jù)上述原始資料及加工工藝,分別確定各加工表面的餓機(jī)械加工余量工序尺寸及毛坯尺寸如下:1.37mm孔毛坯為空心,參照機(jī)械加工工藝手冊,確定工序尺寸為 Z=2.6mm。由鍛件復(fù)雜系數(shù)為S1,鍛件材質(zhì)系數(shù)取M1, 毛坯尺寸為34.4。根據(jù)機(jī)械加工工藝手冊加工余量分別為:粗鏜:36mm 2Z=1.6mm 精鏜:36mm 2Z=1.0mm2.30mm孔毛坯為空心,參照機(jī)械加工工藝手冊,確定工序尺寸為 Z=2.0mm。由鍛件復(fù)雜系數(shù)為S1,鍛件材質(zhì)系數(shù)取M1, 毛坯尺寸為26根據(jù)機(jī)械加工工藝手冊加工余量分別為: 擴(kuò)孔:29.8mm 2Z=1.8mm 鉸孔:30mm 2Z=0.2mm3. 37mm孔、30mm孔端面的加工余量參照機(jī)械加工工藝手冊,取加工精度F2 ,由鍛件復(fù)雜系數(shù)為S3, 兩孔外側(cè)單邊加工余量為Z=2mm。鍛件材質(zhì)系數(shù)取M1, 復(fù)雜系數(shù)為S3, 確定鍛件偏差為 mm和mm。根據(jù)機(jī)械加工工藝手冊加工余量分別為:37mm孔端面: 粗銑 2Z=3.0mm精銑 2Z=1.0mm30mm孔端面:粗銑 2Z=4.0mm 4. 10.5mm孔 毛坯為實心,不出孔 ,為自由工差。根據(jù)機(jī)械加工工藝手冊加工余量分別為: 鉆孔:10.5mm 2Z=10.5mm 由于本設(shè)計規(guī)定的零件為中批生產(chǎn),可采用調(diào)整法加工,因此在計算最大、最小加工余量時,可按調(diào)整法加工方式予以確定。 毛坯名義尺寸:122+22=126mm 毛坯最大尺寸:126+21.3=128.6mm 毛坯最小尺寸:126-20.7=124.6mm 銑后最大尺寸:122+0=122mm 銑后最小尺寸:122-0.17=121.83mm 將以上計算的工序間尺寸及公差整理成下表: (mm)工序工尺加寸 鍛造毛坯銑削加工30mm孔處加工前最大 128.6mm 最小 124.6mm 加工后最大128.6mm 112mm 最小 124.6mm 121.83 mm 加工余量(單邊) 2mm最大3.65mm 最小1.435mm 加工公差mm -0.17/2mm(五) 確定切削用量及基本工時工序:粗銑37mm孔端面。本設(shè)計采用查表法確定切削用量。1. 加工條件工件材料:35鋼,鍛造。加工要求:銑37mm端面,Ra6.3m。機(jī)床:X51立式銑床。刀具:YT15硬質(zhì)合金面銑刀,齒數(shù)Z=5,=100mm。2. 計算切削用量根據(jù)切削手冊 mm/z切削速度:根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊 取 m/min (r/min) 現(xiàn)采用X51立式銑床,根據(jù)機(jī)床說明書,取n=375 r/min。故實際切削速度 (m/min) 當(dāng)n=375 r/min時,工作臺每分鐘進(jìn)給量應(yīng)為 (mm/min) 查機(jī)床說明書,取 mm/min 切削工時 (min) 為加工一側(cè)端面的時間,總工時 (min)工序.粗鏜37mm孔、倒角。根據(jù)機(jī)械加工工藝手冊查得鏜37mm孔的進(jìn)給量=0.31.0mm,按機(jī)床規(guī)格取=0.6mm,切削速度,根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊及機(jī)床說明書,取v=30mm/s,加工孔徑=36mm。則 (r/min) 根據(jù)機(jī)床選取n=300 r/min。 實際切削速度 (m/min)切削工時 (min)工序:粗銑30mm孔外端面。 根據(jù)切削手冊 mm/z切削速度:根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊 取 m/min 刀具與工序所使用刀具相同 mm (r/min) 現(xiàn)采用X51立式銑床,根據(jù)機(jī)床說明書,取n=300 r/min。故實際切削速度 (m/min) 當(dāng)n=300 r/min時,工作臺每分鐘進(jìn)給量應(yīng)為 (mm/min)查機(jī)床說明書,取 mm/min 切削工時 (min) 為加工一側(cè)端面的時間,總工時 (min)工序:粗銑30mm孔內(nèi)端面。 根據(jù)切削手冊 mm/z切削速度:根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊 取 m/min 刀具與工序所使用刀具相同 mm (r/min) 現(xiàn)采用X51立式銑床,根據(jù)機(jī)床說明書,取n=300 r/min。故實際切削速度 (m/min) 當(dāng)n=300 r/min時,工作臺每分鐘進(jìn)給量應(yīng)為 (mm/min)查機(jī)床說明書,取 mm/min 切削工時 (min) 為加工一側(cè)端面的時間,總工時 (min)工序:1.擴(kuò)29.8mm孔。確定進(jìn)給量:根據(jù)機(jī)械加工工藝手冊 =0.81 mm/r。切削速度:根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊,查得切削速度m/min ,所以 (r/min)根據(jù)機(jī)床說明書選取n=140 r/min,故實際切削速度 (m/min) 切削工時 (min)2.鉸30mm孔。確定進(jìn)給量:根據(jù)機(jī)械加工工藝手冊 =1.17 mm/r。切削速度:根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊,查得切削速度m/min ,所以 (r/min)根據(jù)機(jī)床說明書選取n=63 r/min,故實際切削速度 (m/min) 切削工時 (min)工序:精鏜孔至36mm根據(jù)機(jī)械加工工藝手冊查得f=0.5mm/rn=1000r/min=16.6r/s切削速度 v=40m/min=0.67m/s切削工時 (min)工序:半精銑30mm孔端面根據(jù)切削手冊 mm/z切削速度:根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊 取 m/min (r/min) 現(xiàn)采用X51立式銑床,根據(jù)機(jī)床說明書,取n=375 r/min。故實際切削速度 (m/min) 當(dāng)n=375 r/min時,工作臺每分鐘進(jìn)給量應(yīng)為 (mm/min) 查機(jī)床說明書,取 mm/min 切削工時 (min) 為加工一側(cè)端面的時間,總工時 (min)工序:半精銑30mm孔端面。 根據(jù)切削手冊 mm/z切削速度:根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊 取 m/min 刀具與工序所使用刀具相同 mm (r/min) 現(xiàn)采用X51立式銑床,根據(jù)機(jī)床說明書,取n=300 r/min。故實際切削速度 (m/min) 當(dāng)n=300 r/min時,工作臺每分鐘進(jìn)給量應(yīng)為 (mm/min)查機(jī)床說明書,取 mm/min 切削工時 (min) 為加工一側(cè)端面的時間,總工時 (min) 工序:鉆2-10.5mm孔確定進(jìn)給量:根據(jù)機(jī)械加工工藝手冊 鍛件硬度149-187HBS 取=0.234 mm/r。切削速度:根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊,查得切削速度 m/min ,所以 (r/min)根據(jù)機(jī)床說明書選取n=394 r/min,故實際切削速度 (m/min) 切削工時 (min)工序:銑寬為4mm的槽 根據(jù)切削手冊 mm/z切削速度:根據(jù)相關(guān)手冊 取 m/min 刀具采用YT15硬質(zhì)合金面銑刀, mm (r/min) 根據(jù)機(jī)床說明書,取n=600 r/min。故實際切削速度 (m/min)當(dāng)n=600r/min時,工作臺每分鐘進(jìn)給量應(yīng)為 (mm/min) 查機(jī)床說明書,取 mm/min 切削工時 (min) 最后,將以上各工序切削用量、工時定額的計算結(jié)果,連同其他加工數(shù)據(jù)一并填入機(jī)械加工工序過程綜合卡片。 三.夾具設(shè)計為了提高勞動生產(chǎn)率,保證加工質(zhì)量,降低勞動強(qiáng)度,需要設(shè)計專用夾具。經(jīng)過與指導(dǎo)老師協(xié)商,決定設(shè)計第道工序鉆37mm孔的鉆床夾具。本夾具將用于Z3040搖臂鉆床,刀具為高速鋼錐柄麻花鉆(一) 提出問題本夾具用來鉆37mm孔加工本道工序時,該孔有過高的精度要求。因此,在本道工序加工時,主要考慮如何保證孔的定位,如何降低勞動強(qiáng)度、提高勞動生產(chǎn)率。(二) 夾具設(shè)計1. 定位基準(zhǔn)的餓選擇由零件圖可知,以37mm孔和37mm孔的一個端面為定位基準(zhǔn),采用支承釘為輔助支承,同時為了縮短本工序的輔助時間,應(yīng)設(shè)計一個可以快速更換工件的夾緊裝置。2. 切削力和夾緊力的計算刀具:高速鋼錐柄麻花鉆,37mm軸向力: (N)扭距:Nm在計算切削力時必須把安全系數(shù)考慮在內(nèi),安全系數(shù)為基本安全系數(shù)1.5;為加工性質(zhì)系數(shù)1.1;為刀具鈍化系數(shù)1.2。所以 (N)夾緊力:在此夾具中,只是為了防止工件在加工過程中的振動和轉(zhuǎn)動,因此很小。3. 定位誤差分析定位尺寸公差的確定。夾具的主要定位元件是一根定位軸,該定位軸的尺寸與公差現(xiàn)定與本零件在工作時與其相配的軸的尺寸與公差相同,取其公差為,即37mm。定位軸與零件的最大間隙為max=0.05-(-0.033)=0.083mm而零件要求的最小偏差為min=0-(-0.01)=0.01 因此最大間隙滿足精度要求.4. 夾具設(shè)計及操作的簡要說明如前所述,在設(shè)計夾具時,應(yīng)該注意提高勞動生產(chǎn)率,為此,應(yīng)首先著眼于采用何種夾緊裝置以減少更換工件的輔助時間。本夾具設(shè)計采用開口墊圈夾緊裝置,只要松開螺母即可取下工件,可以提高勞動生產(chǎn)率,而且本夾具總體結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計比較簡單、緊湊。 四、參考文獻(xiàn)1.機(jī)械制造工藝學(xué)課程設(shè)計指導(dǎo)書 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社 趙家齊 編2.簡明機(jī)械加工工藝手冊 上??茖W(xué)技術(shù)出版社 徐圣群 主編3. 機(jī)床夾具設(shè)計手冊第二版 上??茖W(xué)技術(shù)出版社4切削手冊 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社 艾興 肖詩綱 編沈陽理工大學(xué)學(xué)士學(xué)位論文附錄二 :中文翻譯 通過夾具布局設(shè)計和夾緊力的優(yōu)化控制變形摘 要工件變形必須控制在數(shù)值控制機(jī)械加工過程之中。夾具布局和夾緊力是影響加工變形程度和分布的兩個主要方面。在本文提出了一種多目標(biāo)模型的建立,以減低變形的程度和增加均勻變形分布。有限元方法應(yīng)用于分析變形。遺傳算法發(fā)展是為了解決優(yōu)化模型。最后舉了一個例子說明,一個令人滿意的結(jié)果被求得, 這是遠(yuǎn)優(yōu)于經(jīng)驗之一的。多目標(biāo)模型可以減少加工變形有效地改善分布狀況。關(guān)鍵詞:夾具布局;夾緊力; 遺傳算法;有限元方法1 引言夾具設(shè)計在制造工程中是一項重要的程序。這對于加工精度是至關(guān)重要。一個工件應(yīng)約束在一個帶有夾具元件,如定位元件,夾緊裝置,以及支撐元件的夾具中加工。定位的位置和夾具的支力,應(yīng)該從戰(zhàn)略的設(shè)計,并且適當(dāng)?shù)膴A緊力應(yīng)適用。該夾具元件可以放在工件表面的任何可選位置。夾緊力必須大到足以進(jìn)行工件加工。通常情況下,它在很大程度上取決于設(shè)計師的經(jīng)驗,選擇該夾具元件的方案,并確定夾緊力。因此,不能保證由此產(chǎn)生的解決方案是某一特定的工件的最優(yōu)或接近最優(yōu)的方案。因此,夾具布局和夾緊力優(yōu)化成為夾具設(shè)計方案的兩個主要方面。 定位和夾緊裝置和夾緊力的值都應(yīng)適當(dāng)?shù)倪x擇和計算,使由于夾緊力和切削力產(chǎn)生的工件變形盡量減少和非正式化。 夾具設(shè)計的目的是要找到夾具元件關(guān)于工件和最優(yōu)的夾緊力的一個最優(yōu)布局或方案。在這篇論文里, 多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化方法是代表了夾具布局設(shè)計和夾緊力的優(yōu)化的方法。 這個觀點是具有兩面性的。一,是盡量減少加工表面最大的彈性變形; 另一個是盡量均勻變形。 ANSYS軟件包是用來計算工件由于夾緊力和切削力下產(chǎn)生的變形。遺傳算法是MATLAB的發(fā)達(dá)且直接的搜索工具箱,并且被應(yīng)用于解決優(yōu)化問題。最后還給出了一個案例的研究,以闡述對所提算法的應(yīng)用。2 文獻(xiàn)回顧隨著優(yōu)化方法在工業(yè)中的廣泛運(yùn)用,近幾年夾具設(shè)計優(yōu)化已獲得了更多的利益。夾具設(shè)計優(yōu)化包括夾具布局優(yōu)化和夾緊力優(yōu)化。King 和 Hutter提出了一種使用剛體模型的夾具-工件系統(tǒng)來優(yōu)化夾具布局設(shè)計的方法。DeMeter也用了一個剛性體模型,為最優(yōu)夾具布局和最低的夾緊力進(jìn)行分析和綜合。他提出了基于支持布局優(yōu)化的程序與計算質(zhì)量的有限元計算法。李和melkote用了一個非線性編程方法和一個聯(lián)絡(luò)彈性模型解決布局優(yōu)化問題。兩年后, 他們提交了一份確定關(guān)于多鉗夾具受到準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)加工力的夾緊力優(yōu)化的方法。他們還提出了一關(guān)于夾具布置和夾緊力的最優(yōu)的合成方法,認(rèn)為工件在加工過程中處于動態(tài)。相結(jié)合的夾具布局和夾緊力優(yōu)化程序被提出,其他研究人員用有限元法進(jìn)行夾具設(shè)計與分析。蔡等對menassa和devries包括合成的夾具布局的金屬板材大會的理論進(jìn)行了拓展。秦等人建立了一個與夾具和工件之間彈性接觸的模型作為參考物來優(yōu)化夾緊力與,以盡量減少工件的位置誤差。Deng和melkote 提交了一份基于模型的框架以確定所需的最低限度夾緊力,保證了被夾緊工件在加工的動態(tài)穩(wěn)定。大部分的上述研究使用的是非線性規(guī)劃方法,很少有全面的或近全面的最優(yōu)解決辦法。所有的夾具布局優(yōu)化程序必須從一個可行布局開始。此外,還得到了對這些模型都非常敏感的初步可行夾具布局的解決方案。夾具優(yōu)化設(shè)計的問題是非線性的,因為目標(biāo)的功能和設(shè)計變量之間沒有直接分析的關(guān)系。例如加工表面誤差和夾具的參數(shù)之間(定位、夾具和夾緊力)。以前的研究表明,遺傳算法( GA )在解決這類優(yōu)化問題中是一種有用的技術(shù)。吳和陳用遺傳算法確定最穩(wěn)定的靜態(tài)夾具布局。石川和青山應(yīng)用遺傳算法確定最佳夾緊條件彈性工件。vallapuzha在基于優(yōu)化夾具布局的遺傳算法中使用空間坐標(biāo)編碼。他們還提出了針對主要競爭夾具優(yōu)化方法相對有效性的廣泛調(diào)查的方法和結(jié)果。這表明連續(xù)遺傳算法取得最優(yōu)質(zhì)的解決方案。krishnakumar和melkote 發(fā)展了一個夾具布局優(yōu)化技術(shù),用遺傳算法找到夾具布局,盡量減少由于在整個刀具路徑的夾緊和切削力造成的加工表面的變形。定位器和夾具位置被節(jié)點號碼所指定。krishnakumar等人還提出了一種迭代算法,盡量減少工件在整個切削過程之中由不同的夾具布局和夾緊力造成的彈性變形。Lai等人建成了一個分析模型,認(rèn)為定位和夾緊裝置為同一夾具布局的要素靈活的一部分。Hamedi 討論了混合學(xué)習(xí)系統(tǒng)用來非線性有限元分析與支持相結(jié)合的人工神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)( ANN )和GA。人工神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)被用來計算工件的最大彈性變形,遺傳算法被用來確定最佳鎖模力。Kumar建議將迭代算法和人工神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)結(jié)合起來發(fā)展夾具設(shè)計系統(tǒng)。Kaya用迭代算法和有限元分析,在二維工件中找到最佳定位和夾緊位置,并且把碎片的效果考慮進(jìn)去。周等人。提出了基于遺傳算法的方法,認(rèn)為優(yōu)化夾具布局和夾緊力的同時,一些研究沒有考慮為整個刀具路徑優(yōu)化布局。一些研究使用節(jié)點數(shù)目作為設(shè)計參數(shù)。一些研究解決夾具布局或夾緊力優(yōu)化方法,但不能兩者都同時進(jìn)行。 有幾項研究摩擦和碎片考慮進(jìn)去了。碎片的移動和摩擦接觸的影響對于實現(xiàn)更為現(xiàn)實和準(zhǔn)確的工件夾具布局校核分析來說是不可忽視的。因此將碎片的去除效果和摩擦考慮在內(nèi)以實現(xiàn)更好的加工精度是必須的。在這篇論文中,將摩擦和碎片移除考慮在內(nèi),以達(dá)到加工表面在夾緊和切削力下最低程度的變形。一多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化模型被建立了。一個優(yōu)化的過程中基于GA和有限元法提交找到最佳的布局和夾具夾緊力。最后,結(jié)果多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化模型對低剛度工件而言是比較單一的目標(biāo)優(yōu)化方法、經(jīng)驗和方法。3 多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化模型夾具設(shè)計一個可行的夾具布局必須滿足三限制。首先,定位和夾緊裝置不能將拉伸勢力應(yīng)用到工件;第二,庫侖摩擦約束必須施加在所有夾具-工件的接觸點。夾具元件-工件接觸點的位置必須在候選位置。為一個問題涉及夾具元件-工件接觸和加工負(fù)荷步驟,優(yōu)化問題可以在數(shù)學(xué)上仿照如下: 這里的表示加工區(qū)域在加工當(dāng)中j次步驟的最高彈性變形。其中是的平均值;是正常力在i次的接觸點;是靜態(tài)摩擦系數(shù);fhi是切向力在i次的接觸點;pos(i)是i次的接觸點;是可選區(qū)域的i次接觸點;整體過程如圖1所示,一要設(shè)計一套可行的夾具布局和優(yōu)化的夾緊力。最大切削力在切削模型和切削力發(fā)送到有限元分析模型中被計算出來。優(yōu)化程序造成一些夾具布局和夾緊力,同時也是被發(fā)送到有限元模型中。在有限元分析座內(nèi),加工變形下,切削力和夾緊力的計算方法采用有限元方法。根據(jù)某夾具布局和變形,然后發(fā)送給優(yōu)化程序,以搜索為一優(yōu)化夾具方案。圖1 夾具布局和夾緊力優(yōu)化過程4 夾具布局設(shè)計和夾緊力的優(yōu)化4.1 遺傳算法遺傳算法( GA )是基于生物再生產(chǎn)過程的強(qiáng)勁,隨機(jī)和啟發(fā)式的優(yōu)化方法?;舅悸繁澈蟮倪z傳算法是模擬“生存的優(yōu)勝劣汰“的現(xiàn)象。每一個人口中的候選個體指派一個健身的價值,通過一個功能的調(diào)整,以適應(yīng)特定的問題。遺傳算法,然后進(jìn)行復(fù)制,交叉和變異過程消除不適宜的個人和人口的演進(jìn)給下一代。人口足夠數(shù)目的演變基于這些經(jīng)營者引起全球健身人口的增加和優(yōu)勝個體代表全最好的方法。遺傳算法程序在優(yōu)化夾具設(shè)計時需夾具布局和夾緊力作為設(shè)計變量,以生成字符串代表不同的布置。字符串相比染色體的自然演變,以及字符串,它和遺傳算法尋找最優(yōu),是映射到最優(yōu)的夾具設(shè)計計劃。在這項研究里,遺傳算法和MATLAB的直接搜索工具箱是被運(yùn)用的。 收斂性遺傳算法是被人口大小、交叉的概率和概率突變所控制的 。只有當(dāng)在一個人口中功能最薄弱功能的最優(yōu)值沒有變化時,nchg達(dá)到一個預(yù)先定義的價值ncmax ,或有多少幾代氮,到達(dá)演化的指定數(shù)量上限nmax, 沒有遺傳算法停止。有五個主要因素,遺傳算法,編碼,健身功能,遺傳算子,控制參數(shù)和制約因素。 在這篇論文中,這些因素都被選出如表1所列。表1 遺傳算法參數(shù)的選擇由于遺傳算法可能產(chǎn)生夾具設(shè)計字符串,當(dāng)受到加工負(fù)荷時不完全限制夾具。這些解決方案被認(rèn)為是不可行的,且被罰的方法是用來驅(qū)動遺傳算法,以實現(xiàn)一個可行的解決辦法。1夾具設(shè)計的計劃被認(rèn)為是不可行的或無約束,如果反應(yīng)在定位是否定的。在換句話說,它不符合方程(2)和(3)的限制。罰的方法基本上包含指定計劃的高目標(biāo)函數(shù)值時不可行的。因此,驅(qū)動它在連續(xù)迭代算法中的可行區(qū)域。對于約束(4),當(dāng)遺傳算子產(chǎn)生新個體或此個體已經(jīng)產(chǎn)生,檢查它們是否符合條件是必要的。真正的候選區(qū)域是那些不包括無效的區(qū)域。在為了簡化檢查,多邊形是用來代表候選區(qū)域和無效區(qū)域的。多邊形的頂點是用于檢查?!癷npolygon ”在MATLAB的功能可被用來幫助檢查。4.2 有限元分析ANSYS軟件包是用于在這方面的研究有限元分析計算。有限元模型是一個考慮摩擦效應(yīng)的半彈性接觸模型,如果材料是假定線彈性。如圖2所示,每個位置或支持,是代表三個正交彈簧提供的制約。圖2 考慮到摩擦的半彈性接觸模型在x , y和z 方向和每個夾具類似,但定位夾緊力在正常的方向。彈力在自然的方向即所謂自然彈力,其余兩個彈力即為所謂的切向彈力。接觸彈簧剛度可以根據(jù)向赫茲接觸理論計算如下:隨著夾緊力和夾具布局的變化,接觸剛度也不同,一個合理的線性逼近的接觸剛度可以從適合上述方程的最小二乘法得到。連續(xù)插值,這是用來申請工件的有限元分析模型的邊界條件。在圖3中說明了夾具元件的位置,顯示為黑色界線。每個元素的位置被其它四或六最接近的鄰近節(jié)點所包圍。圖3 連續(xù)插值這系列節(jié)點,如黑色正方形所示,是(37,38,31和30 ),(9,10 ,11 , 18,17號和16號)和( 26,27 ,34 , 41,40和33 )。這一系列彈簧單元,與這些每一個節(jié)點相關(guān)聯(lián)。對任何一套節(jié)點,彈簧常數(shù)是:這里,kij 是彈簧剛度在的j -次節(jié)點周圍i次夾具元件,Dij 是i次夾具元件和的J -次節(jié)點周圍之間的距離,ki是彈簧剛度在一次夾具元件位置,i 是周圍的i次夾具元素周圍的節(jié)點數(shù)量為每個加工負(fù)荷的一步,適當(dāng)?shù)倪吔鐥l件將適用于工件的有限元模型。在這個工作里,正常的彈簧約束在這三個方向(X , Y , Z )的和在切方向切向彈簧約束,(X , Y )。夾緊力是適用于正常方向(Z)的夾緊點。整個刀具路徑是模擬為每個夾具設(shè)計計劃所產(chǎn)生的遺傳算法應(yīng)用的高峰期的X ,Y ,z切削力順序到元曲面,其中刀具通行證。在這工作中,從刀具路徑中歐盟和去除碎片已經(jīng)被考慮進(jìn)去。在機(jī)床改變幾何數(shù)值過程中,材料被去除,工件的結(jié)構(gòu)剛度也改變。 因此,這是需要考慮碎片移除的影響。有限元分析模型,分析與重點的工具運(yùn)動和碎片移除使用的元素死亡技術(shù)。在為了計算健身價值,對于給定夾具設(shè)計方案,位移存儲為每個負(fù)載的一步。那么,最大位移是選定為夾具設(shè)計計劃的健身價值。遺傳算法的程序和ANSYS之間的互動實施如下。定位和夾具的位置以及夾緊力這些參數(shù)寫入到一個文本文件。那個輸入批處理文件ANSYS軟件可以讀取這些參數(shù)和計算加工表面的變形。 因此, 健身價值觀,在遺傳算法程序,也可以寫到當(dāng)前夾具設(shè)計計劃的一個文本文件。當(dāng)有大量的節(jié)點在一個有限元模型時,計算健身價值是很昂貴的。因此,有必要加快計算遺傳算法程序。作為這一代的推移,染色體在人口中取得類似情況。在這項工作中,計算健身價值和染色體存放在一個SQL Server數(shù)據(jù)庫。遺傳算法的程序,如果目前的染色體的健身價值已計算之前,先檢查;如果不,夾具設(shè)計計劃發(fā)送到ANSYS,否則健身價值觀是直接從數(shù)據(jù)庫中取出。嚙合的工件有限元模型,在每一個計算時間保持不變。每計算模型間的差異是邊界條件,因此,網(wǎng)狀工件的有限元模型可以用來反復(fù)“恢復(fù)”ANSYS 命令。5 案例研究一個關(guān)于低剛度工件的銑削夾具設(shè)計優(yōu)化問題是被顯示在前面的論文中,并在以下各節(jié)加以表述。5.1 工件的幾何形狀和性能工件的幾何形狀和特點顯示在圖4中,空心工件的材料是鋁390與泊松比0.3和71Gpa的楊氏模量。外廓尺寸152.4mm127mm*76.2mm.該工件頂端內(nèi)壁的三分之一是經(jīng)銑削及其刀具軌跡,如圖4 所示。夾具元件中應(yīng)用到的材料泊松比0.3和楊氏模量的220的合金鋼。圖4 空心工件5.2 模擬和加工的運(yùn)作舉例將工件進(jìn)行周邊銑削,加工參數(shù)在表2中給出?;谶@些參數(shù),切削力的最高值被作為工件內(nèi)壁受到的表面載荷而被計算和應(yīng)用,當(dāng)工件處于330.94 n(切)、398.11 N (下徑向)和22.84 N (下軸) 的切削位置時。整個刀具路徑被26個工步所分開,切削力的方向被刀具位置所確定表2加工參數(shù)和條件。5.3 夾具設(shè)計方案夾具在加工過程中夾緊工件的規(guī)劃如圖5所示。圖5 定位和夾緊裝置的可選區(qū)域一般來說, 3-2-1定位原則是夾具設(shè)計中常用的。夾具底板限制三個自由度,在側(cè)邊控制兩個自由度。這里,在Y=0mm截面上使用了4個定點(L1,L2 , L3和14 ),以定位工件并限制2自由度;并且在Y=127mm的相反面上,兩個壓板(C1,C2)夾緊工件。在正交面上,需要一個定位元件限制其余的一個自由度,這在優(yōu)化模型中是被忽略的。在表3中給出了定位加緊點的坐標(biāo)范圍。表3 設(shè)計變量的約束由于沒有一個簡單的一體化程序確定夾緊力,夾緊力很大部分(6673.2N)在初始階段被假設(shè)為每一個夾板上作用的力。且從符合例5的最小二乘法,分別由4.43107 N/m 和5.47107 N/m得到了正常切向剛度。5.4 遺傳控制參數(shù)和懲罰函數(shù)在這個例子中,用到了下列參數(shù)值:Ps=30, Pc=0.85, Pm=0.01, Nmax=100和Ncmax=20.關(guān)于f1和的懲罰函數(shù)是這里fv可以被F1或代表。當(dāng)nchg達(dá)到6時,交叉和變異的概率將分別改變成0.6和0.1.5.5 優(yōu)化結(jié)果連續(xù)優(yōu)化的收斂過程如圖6所示。且收斂過程的相應(yīng)功能(1)和(2)如圖7、圖8所示。優(yōu)化設(shè)計方案在表4中給出。圖6 夾具布局和夾緊力優(yōu)化程序的收斂性遺傳算法 圖7 第一個函數(shù)值的收斂圖8第二個函數(shù)值的收斂性表4 多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化模型的結(jié)果 表5 各種夾具設(shè)計方案結(jié)果進(jìn)行比較,5.6 結(jié)果的比較 從單一目標(biāo)優(yōu)化和經(jīng)驗設(shè)計中得到的夾具設(shè)計的設(shè)計變量和目標(biāo)函數(shù)值,如表5所示。單一目標(biāo)優(yōu)化的結(jié)果,在論文中引做比較。在例子中,與經(jīng)驗設(shè)計相比較,單一目標(biāo)優(yōu)化方法有其優(yōu)勢。最高變形減少了57.5 ,均勻變形增強(qiáng)了60.4 。最高夾緊力的值也減少了49.4 。從多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化方法和單目標(biāo)優(yōu)化方法的比較中可以得出什么呢?最大變形減少了50.2 ,均勻變形量增加了52.9 ,最高夾緊力的值減少了69.6 。加工表面沿刀具軌跡的變形分布如圖9所示。很明顯,在三種方法中,多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化方法產(chǎn)生的變形分布最均勻。與結(jié)果比較,我們確信運(yùn)用最佳定位點分布和最優(yōu)夾緊力來減少工件的變形。圖10示出了一實例夾具的裝配。圖9沿刀具軌跡的變形分布圖10 夾具配置實例6 結(jié)論本文介紹了基于GA和有限元的夾具布局設(shè)計和夾緊力的優(yōu)化程序設(shè)計。優(yōu)化程序是多目標(biāo)的:最大限度地減少加工表面的最高變形和最大限度地均勻變形。ANSYS軟件包已經(jīng)被用于健身價值的有限元計算。對于夾具設(shè)計優(yōu)化的問題,GA和有限元分析的結(jié)合被證明是一種很有用的方法。 在這項研究中,摩擦的影響和碎片移動都被考慮到了。為了減少計算的時間,建立了一個染色體的健身數(shù)值的數(shù)據(jù)庫,且網(wǎng)狀工件的有限元模型是優(yōu)化過程中多次使用的。 傳統(tǒng)的夾具設(shè)計方法是單一目標(biāo)優(yōu)化方法或經(jīng)驗。此研究結(jié)果表明,多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化方法比起其他兩種方法更有效地減少變形和均勻變形。這對于在數(shù)控加工中控制加工變形是很有意義的。參考文獻(xiàn)1、 King LS,Hutter( 1993年) 自動化裝配線上棱柱工件最佳裝夾定位生成的理論方法。De Meter EC (1995) 優(yōu)化機(jī)床夾具表現(xiàn)的Min - Max負(fù)荷模型。2、 De Meter EC (1998) 快速支持布局優(yōu)化。Li B, Melkote SN (1999) 通過夾具布局優(yōu)化改善工件的定位精度。3、 Li B, Melkote SN (2001) 夾具夾緊力的優(yōu)化和其對工件的定位精度的影響。4、 Li B, Melkote SN (1999) 通過夾具布局優(yōu)化改善工件的定位精度。5、 Li B, Melkote SN (2001) 夾具夾緊力的優(yōu)化和其對工件定位精度的影響。6、 Li B, Melkote SN (2001) 最優(yōu)夾具設(shè)計計算工件動態(tài)的影響。7、 Lee JD, Haynes LS (1987) 靈活裝夾系統(tǒng)的有限元分析。8、 Menassa RJ, DeVries WR (1991) 運(yùn)用優(yōu)化方法在夾具設(shè)計中選擇支位。9、 Cai W, Hu SJ, Yuan JX (1996) 變形金屬板材的裝夾的原則、算法和模擬。10、 Qin GH, Zhang WH, Zhou XL (2005) 夾具裝夾方案的建模和優(yōu)化設(shè)計。11、Deng HY, Melkote SN (2006) 動態(tài)穩(wěn)定裝夾中夾緊力最小值的確定。12、Wu NH, Chan KC (1996) 基于遺傳算法的夾具優(yōu)化配置方法。13、Ishikawa Y, Aoyama T(1996) 借助遺傳算法對裝夾條件的優(yōu)化。14、Vallapuzha S, De Meter EC, Choudhuri S, et al (2002) 一項關(guān)于空間坐標(biāo)對基于遺傳算法的夾具優(yōu)化問題的作用的調(diào)查。15、Vallapuzha S, De Meter EC, Choudhuri S, et al (2002) 夾具布局優(yōu)化方法成效的調(diào)查。16、Kulankara K, Melkote SN (2000) 利用遺傳算法優(yōu)化加工夾具的布局。17、Kulankara K, Satyanarayana S, Melkote SN (2002) 利用遺傳算法優(yōu)化夾緊布局和夾緊力。18、Lai XM, Luo LJ, Lin ZQ (2004) 基于遺傳算法的柔性裝配夾具布局的建模與優(yōu)化。19、Hamedi M (2005) 通過一種人工神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)和遺傳算法混合的系統(tǒng)設(shè)計智能夾具。20、Kumar AS, Subramaniam V, Seow KC (2001) 采用遺傳算法固定裝置的概念設(shè)計。21、Kaya N (2006) 利用遺傳算法優(yōu)化加工夾具的定位和夾緊點。22、Zhou XL, Zhang WH, Qin GH (2005) 遺傳算法用于優(yōu)化夾具布局和夾緊力。23、Kaya N, ztrk F (2003) 碎片位移和摩擦接觸的運(yùn)用對工件夾具布局的校核。62ORIGINAL ARTICLEDeformation control through fixture layout designand clamping force optimizationWeifang Chen&Lijun Ni&Jianbin XueReceived: 2 February 2007 /Accepted: 4 July 2007#Springer-Verlag London Limited 2007Abstract Workpiece deformation must be controlled in thenumerical control machining process. Fixture layout andclamping force are two main aspects that influence thedegree and distribution of machining deformation. In thispaper, a multi-objective model was established to reducethe degree of deformation and to increase the distributinguniformity of deformation. The finite element method wasemployed to analyze the deformation. A genetic algorithmwas developed to solve the optimization model. Finally, anexample illustrated that a satisfactory result was obtained,which is far superior to the experiential one. The multi-objective model can reduce the machining deformationeffectively and improve the distribution condition.Keywords Fixturelayout.Clampingforce.Geneticalgorithm.Finiteelementmethod1 IntroductionFixture design is an important procedure in manufacturingengineering. It is critical to machining accuracy. Aworkpiece should be constrained in a fixture duringmachining with fixture elements such as locators, clamps,and supports. The positions of locators, clamps andsupports should be strategically designed and appropriateclamping forces should be applied. The fixture elementscan be placed anywhere within the candidate regions on theworkpiece surfaces. Clamping force must be large enoughto hold the workpiece during machining. Typically, it reliesheavily on the designers experience to choose the positionsof the fixture elements and to determine the clampingforces. Thus there is no assurance that the resultant solutionis optimal or near optimal for a given workpiece.Consequently, the fixture layout and the clamping forceoptimization become two main aspects in fixture design.The positions of locators and clamps, and the values ofclamping force should be properly selected and calculatedso that the workpiece deformation due to clamping andcutting force is minimized and uniformed.The objective of fixture design is to find an optimallayout or positions of the fixture elements around theworkpiece and optimal clamping force. In this paper, amulti-objective optimization method is presented for thefixture layout design and clamping force optimization.The objective is two folded. One is to minimize themaximum elastic deformation of the machined surfaces,and another is to maximize the uniformity of deforma-tion. The ANSYS software package is used to calculatethe deformation of the workpiece under given clampingforce and cutting force. A genetic algorithm is devel-oped, and the direct search toolbox of MATLAB isemployed to solve the optimization problem. Finally, acase study is given to illustrate the application of theproposed approach.2 Literature reviewWith the wide applications of optimization methods inindustry, fixture design optimization has gained moreinterests in recent years. Fixture design optimizationincludes fixture layout optimization and clamping forceoptimization. King and Hutter presented a method forInt J Adv Manuf TechnolDOI 10.1007/s00170-007-1153-2W. Chen:L. Ni:J. Xue (*)College of Mechanical and Electronical Engineering,Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,No. 29, Yudao Street,Nanjing 210016, Chinae-mail: optimal fixture layout design using a rigid body model of thefixture-workpiece system 1. DeMeter also used a rigidbody model for the analysis and synthesis of optimalfixture layouts and minimum clamping force 2. Hepresented a finite element method (FEM) based supportlayout optimization procedure with computationally attrac-tive qualities 3. Li and Melkote used a nonlinearprogramming method and a contact elasticity model tosolve the layout optimization problem 4. Two years later,they presented a method for determining the optimalclamping force for a multiple clamp fixture subjected toquasi-static machining force 5. They also presented anoptimal synthesis approach of fixture layout and clampingforce that considers workpiece dynamics during machining6. A combined fixture layout and clamping forceoptimization procedure was presented. Other researchers7, 8 used the FEM for fixture design and analysis. Cai etal. 9 extended the work of Menassa and DeVries 8 toinclude synthesis of fixture layout for sheet metal assembly.Qin et al. 10 established an elastic contact model betweenclamp and workpiece to optimize the clamping force withan objective to minimize the position error of theworkpiece. Deng and Melkote 11 presented a model-based framework for determining the minimum requiredclamping force, which ensures the dynamic stability of afixtured workpiece during machining.Most of the above studies used nonlinear programmingmethods, which seldom gave global or near-global opti-mum solutions. All of the fixture layout optimizationprocedures must start with an initial feasible layout. Inaddition, solutions obtained from these models are verysensitive to the initial feasible fixture layout. The problemof fixture design optimization is nonlinear because there isno direct analytical relationship between the objectivefunction and design variables, i.e. between the machinedsurface error and the fixture parameters (positions of locatorand clamp, and clamping forces).Previous researchers had shown that genetic algorithm(GA) was a useful technique in solving such optimiza-tion problems. Wu and Chan 12 used the GA todetermine the most statically stable fixture layout. Ishikawaand Aoyama 13 applied GA to determine the optimalclamping condition for an elastic workpiece. Vallapuzha etal. 14 used spatial coordinates to encode in the GA basedoptimization of fixture layout. They also presented themethodology and results of an extensive investigation intothe relative effectiveness of the main competing fixtureoptimization methods, which showed that continuous GAyielded the best quality solutions 15. Krishnakumar andMelkote 16 developed a fixture layout optimizationtechnique that used GA to find the fixture layout thatminimized the deformation of the machined surface due toclamping and cutting force over the entire tool path.Locator and clamp positions were specified with nodenumbers. Krishnakumar et al. 17 presented an iterativealgorithm that minimized the workpiece elastic deformationfor the entire cutting process by alternatively varying thefixture layout and clamping force. Lai et al. 18 set up ananalysis model that treated locator and clamps as the samefixture layout elements for the flexible part deformation.Hamedi 19 discussed a hybrid learning system that usednonlinear FEA with a supportive combination of artificialneural network (ANN) and GA. The ANN was used tocalculate workpiece maximum elastic deformation, the GAwas used to determine the optimum clamping forces.Kumar 20 proposed to combine the GA and ANN todevelop a fixture design system. Kaya 21 used the GAand FEM to find the optimal locators and clampingpositions in 2D workpiece and took chip removal effectsinto account. Zhou et al. 22 presented a GA based methodthat optimized fixture layout and clamping force simulta-neously. Some of the studies did not consider theoptimization of the layout for entire tool path. Some ofthe studies used node numbers as design parameters.Some of the studies addressed fixture layout or clampingforce optimization methods but not both simultaneously.And there were few studies taking friction and chipremoval into account. The effects of chip removal andfrictional contact cannot be neglected for achieving amore realistic and accurate workpiece-fixture layoutverification analysis 23, so it is essential to take chipremoval effects and friction effect into account to achieve abetter machining accuracy.In this paper, the friction and chip removal are takeninto account to achieve the minimum degree of themaximum deformation of the machined surfaces underclamping and cutting force and to uniform the deforma-tion. A multi-objective optimization model is established.An optimization process based on GA and FEM ispresented to find the optimal fixture layout and clampingforce. Finally, the result of the multi-objective optimiza-tion model is compared with the single objectiveoptimization method and the experience method for a lowrigidity workpiece.3 A multi-objective optimization model for fixturedesignA feasible fixture layout has to satisfy three constraints.First, the locators and clamps cannot apply tensile forces onthe workpiece. Second, the Coulomb friction constraintmust be satisfied at all fixture-workpiece contact points.The positions of fixture element-workpiece contact pointsmust be in the candidate regions. For a problem involving pfixture element-workpiece contacts and n machining loadInt J Adv Manuf Technolsteps, the optimization problem can be mathematicallymodeled as followsmin max1jj; 2jj;:; j?;:; njj? s?;j 1;2;:;n1Subject tom Fnijj ?ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiF2ti F2hiq2Fni? 03pos i 2 V i ;i 1;2;:;p4where jrefers to the maximum elastic deformation at amachining region in the j-th step of the machiningoperation,ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiXnj1j ? ?2?nvuutis the average of jFniis the normal force at the i-th contact pointis the static coefficient of frictionFti;Fhiare the tangential forces at the i-th contact pointpos(i)is the i-th contact pointV(i)is the candidate region of the i-th contact point.The overall process is illustrated in Fig. 1 to design afeasible fixture layout and to optimize the clamping force.The maximal cutting force is calculated in cutting modeland the force is sent to finite element analysis (FEA) model.Optimization procedure creates some fixture layout andclamping force which are sent to the FEA model too. InFEA block, machining deformation under the cutting forceand the clamping force is calculated using finite elementmethod under a certain fixture layout, and the deformationis then sent to optimization procedure to search for anoptimal fixture scheme.4 Fixture layout design and clamping force optimization4.1 A genetic algorithmGenetic algorithms (GA) are robust, stochastic and heuristicoptimization methods based on biological reproductionprocesses. The basic idea behind GA is to simulate “survivalof the fittest” phenomena. Each individual candidate in thepopulation is assigned a fitness value through a fitnessfunction tailored to the specific problem. The GA thenconducts reproduction, crossover and mutation processesto eliminate unfit individuals and the population evolvesto the next generation. Sufficient number of evolutions ofthe population based on these operators lead to anincrease in the global fitness of the population and thefittest individual represents the best solution.The GA procedure to optimize fixture design takesfixture layout and clamping force as design variables togenerate strings which represent different layouts. Thestrings are compared to the chromosomes of naturalevolution, and the string, which GA find optimal, ismapped to the optimal fixture design scheme. In this study,the genetic algorithm and direct search toolbox of MATLABare employed.The convergence of GA is controlled by the populationsize (Ps), the probability of crossover (Pc) and theprobability of mutations (Pm). Only when no change inthe best value of fitness function in a population, Nchg,reaches a pre-defined value NCmax, or the number ofgenerations, N, reaches the specified maximum number ofevolutions, Nmax., did the GA stop.There are five main factors in GA, encoding, fitnessfunction, genetic operators, control parameters and con-straints. In this paper, these factors are selected as what islisted in Table 1.Since GA is likely to generate fixture design strings thatdo not completely restrain the fixture when subjected tomachining loads. These solutions are considered infeasibleand the penalty method is used to drive the GA to a feasiblesolution. A fixture design scheme is considered infeasible orunconstrained if the reactions at the locators are negative, inother words, it does not satisfy the constraints in equations(2) and (3). The penalty method essentially involvesMachiningProcess ModelFEAOptimizationprocedurecutting forcesfitnessOptimization resultFixture layout and clamping force Fig. 1 Fixture layout and clamp-ing force optimization processTable 1 Selection of GAs parametersFactorsDescriptionEncodingRealScalingRankSelectionRemainderCrossoverIntermediateMutationUniformControl parameterSelf-adaptingInt J Adv Manuf Technolassigning a high objective function value to the scheme thatis infeasible, thus driving it to the feasible region insuccessive iterations of GA. For constraint (4), when newindividuals are generated by genetic operators or the initialgeneration is generated, it is necessary to check up whetherthey satisfy the conditions. The genuine candidate regionsare those excluding invalid regions. In order to simplify thechecking, polygons are used to represent the candidateregions and invalid regions. The vertex of the polygons areused for the checking. The “inpolygon” function inMATLAB could be used to help the checking.4.2 Finite element analysisThe software package of ANSYS is used for FEAcalculations in this study. The finite element model is asemi-elastic contact model considering friction effect,where the materials are assumed linearly elastic. As shownin Fig. 2, each locator or support is represented by threeorthogonal springs that provide restrains in the X, Y and Zdirections and each clamp is similar to locator but clampingforce in normal direction. The spring in normal direction iscalled normal spring and the other two springs are calledtangential springs.The contact spring stiffness can be calculated accordingto the Herz contact theory 8 as followskiz16R?iE?2i9?13fiz13kiz kiy6E?i2?vfiGfi2?vwiGwi?1? kiz8:5wherekiz, kix, kiyare the tangential and normal contactstiffness,1R?i1Rwi1Rfiis the nominal contact radius,1E?i1?V2wiEwi1?V2fiEfiis the nominal contact elastic modulus,Rwi, Rfiare radius of the i-th workpiece andfixture element,Ewi, Efiare Youngs moduli for the i-thworkpiece and fixture materials,wi, fiare Poisson ratios for the i-th workpieceand fixture materials,Gwi, Gfiare shear moduli for the i-th workpieceand fixture materials and fizis thereaction force at the i-th contact point inthe Z direction.Contact stiffness varies with the change of clampingforce and fixture layout. A reasonable linear approximationof the contact stiffness can be obtained from a least-squaresfit to the above equation.The continuous interpolation, which is used to applyboundary conditions to the workpiece FEA model, isFig. 2 Semi-elastic contact model taking friction into accountSpring positionFixture element position12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849Fig. 3 Continuous interpolationFig. 4 A hollow workpieceTable 2 Machining parameters and conditionsParameterDescriptionType of operationEnd millingCutter diameter25.4 mmNumber of flutes4Cutter RPM500Feed0.1016 mm/toothRadial depth of cut2.54 mmAxial depth of cut25.4 mmRadial rake angle10Helix angle30Projection length92.07 mmInt J Adv Manuf Technolillustrated in Fig. 3. Three fixture element locations areshown as black circles. Each element location is surroundedby its four or six nearest neighboring nodes. These sets ofnodes, which are illustrated by black squares, are 37, 38,31 and 30, 9, 10, 11, 18, 17 and 16 and 26, 27, 34, 41,40 and 33. A set of spring elements are attached to each ofthese nodes. For any set of nodes, the spring constant iskijdijPk2hidikki6wherekijis the spring stiffness at the j-th node surrounding thei-th fixture element,dijis the distance between the i-th fixture element and thej-th node surrounding it,kiis the spring stiffness at the i-th fixture elementlocation.iis the number of nodes surrounding the i-th fixtureelement location.For each machining load step, appropriate boundaryconditions have to be applied to the finite element model ofthe workpiece. In this work, the normal springs areconstrained in the three directions (X, Y, Z) and thetangential springs are constrained in the tangential direc-tions (X, Y). Clamping forces are applied in the normaldirection (Z) at the clamp nodes. The entire tool path issimulated for each fixture design scheme generated by theGA by applying the peak X, Y, Z cutting forces sequentiallyto the element surfaces over which the cutter passes 23.In this work, chip removal from the tool path is takeninto account. The removal of the material during machiningalters the geometry, so does the structural stiffness of theworkpiece. Thus, it is necessary to consider chip removalaffects. The FEA model is analyzed with respect to toolmovement and chip removal using the element deathtechnique. In order to calculate the fitness value for a givenfixture design scheme, displacements are stored for eachload step. Then the maximum displacement is selected asfitness value for this fixture design scheme.The interaction between GA procedure and ANSYS isimplemented as follows. Both the positions of locators andclamps, and the clamping force are extracted from realstrings. These parameters are written to a text file. Theinput batch file of ANSYS could read these parameters andcalculate the deformation of machined surfaces. Thus thefitness values in GA procedure can also be written to a textfile for current fixture design scheme.It is costly to compute the fitness value when there are alargenumber of nodes in an FEM model.Thus itis necessaryto speed up the computation for GA procedure. As thegeneration goes by, chromosomes in the population aregetting similar. In this work, calculated fitness values arestored in a SQL Server database with the chromosomes andfitness values. GA procedure first checks if currentchromosomes fitness value has been calculated before, ifnot, fixture design scheme are sent to ANSYS, otherwisefitness values are directly taken from the database.The meshing of workpiece FEA model keeps same inevery calculating time. The difference among everycalculating model is the boundary conditions. Thus, themeshed workpiece FEA model could be used repeatedly bythe “resume” command in ANSYS.5 Case studyAn example of milling fixture design optimization problemfor a low rigidity workpiece displayed in previous researchpapers 16, 18, 22 is presented in the following sections.Fig. 5 Candidate regions for thelocators and clampsTable 3 Bound of design variablesMinimumMaximumX /mmZ /mmX /mmZ /mmL10076.238.1L276.20152.438.1L3038.176.276.2L476.238.1152.476.2C10076.276.2C276.20152.476.2F1/N06673.2F2/N06673.2Int J Adv Manuf Technol5.1 Workpiece geometry and propertiesThe geometry and features of the workpiece are shown inFig. 4. The material of the hollow workpiece is aluminum390 with a Poisson ration of 0.3 and Youngs modulus of71 Gpa. The outline dimensions are 152.4 mm127 mm76.2 mm. The one third top inner wall of the workpiece isundergoing an end-milling process and its cutter path is alsoshown in Fig. 4. The material of the employed fixtureelements is alloy steel with a Poisson ration of 0.3 andYoungs modulus of 220 Gpa.5.2 Simulating and machining operationA peripheral end milling operation is carried out on theexample workpiece. The machining parameters of theoperation are given in Table 2. Based on these parameters,the maximum values of cutting forces that are calculatedand applied as element surface loads on the inner wall ofthe workpiece at the cutter position are 330.94 N(tangential), 398.11 N (radial) and 22.84 N (axial). Theentire tool path is discretized into 26 load steps and cuttingforce directions are determined by the cutter position.5.3 Fixture design planThe fixture plan for holding the workpiece in the machiningoperation is shown in Fig. 5.
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