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1、附 英語詞匯學(xué)自學(xué)考試大里 g英語詞匯學(xué) 組編/全國高等教育自學(xué)考試指導(dǎo)委員會 主編/張 升語赦學(xué)與研完出版.社 全國高等教育自學(xué)考試指定教材英語專業(yè)（本科段） O茉甫與作 O蕪美圭 O現(xiàn)代書咅學(xué) O現(xiàn)代莢W語怯 ?善再畐I學(xué) O+語56^?丄広 O英誥經(jīng)賢櫥識 O*曾2電 O”的經(jīng)買迭諺 O英甫耳故文無 O旅滿業(yè)壽違律 O甫言.又化 1SBM 7-5600-1150-0 9 787560 011509 > ISBN 7-5MW-II5

2、O-O/G - 4MV 定價：12.90 兀 全國高等教育自學(xué)考試指定教材 英語專業(yè)（本科段） English Lexicology 英語詞匯學(xué) （附:英語詞匯學(xué)自學(xué)考試大綱） 全國鬲等教育自學(xué)考試指導(dǎo)委員會組編 盛維友編著 外語教學(xué)與研究出版社 Foreign Language Teaching And Research Press (屈)新登字155號 圖書在版編目(CIP)故據(jù) 英語詞匯學(xué).-北京:外語教學(xué)與研究岀版社，1997,8 ISBN 7 - 5600 -1150 -0 I.英 L張 虬英語-詞匯學(xué) N.H313 中國版本圖書館CIP數(shù)據(jù)核字(96

3、)第24482號 版權(quán)所有翻印必究 英語詞匯學(xué) (附：英語詞匯學(xué)自學(xué)考試大綱) 編著：張維友 V ? 責(zé)任■:徐建中 出版曩行：外語敬學(xué)與研究岀飯社出版發(fā)行 ti 址：北京西三環(huán)北# 19# (100089) 址：http: //www. fltrp com. m ft壽州市星河印刷廠 #. 880X I2JO 1/32 強(qiáng)；9J25 數(shù)，155干字 次"999年12月氟2版2000年】月第】次印聊 ； 70001-100100M 號 ISBN 7 - 5600 - 1150 - 0/G-499 價：12.90元 如有印辱裝訂質(zhì)景冋明者，請與當(dāng)?shù)剜蛄瞎┮?/p>

4、部門聯(lián)系調(diào)換, 組編前言 當(dāng)您IT始閱瀆本書時，人類已經(jīng)邁人了 21世紀(jì)。 這是一個變幻難測的世紀(jì)，這是一個催人奮進(jìn)的時代，科學(xué)技 術(shù)飛速發(fā)展，知識更替日新月異。希望、困惑、機(jī)遇挑戰(zhàn)，隨時隨 地都有可能出現(xiàn)在每一個社會成員的生活之中。抓住機(jī).遇，尋求 發(fā)展.迎接挑戰(zhàn)，適應(yīng)變化的制勝法寶就是學(xué)習(xí)——依靠自己學(xué) 習(xí)，終生學(xué)習(xí)。 作為我國高等教育組成部分的自學(xué)考試，其職責(zé)就是在高等 教育這個水平上倡導(dǎo)自學(xué)、鼓勵自學(xué)、幫助自學(xué)、推動自學(xué)，為每一 個自學(xué)者鋪就成才之路，組織編寫供讀者學(xué)習(xí)的教材就是履行這 個職責(zé)的重要環(huán)節(jié)。毫無疑問，這種教材應(yīng)當(dāng)適合自學(xué)，應(yīng)當(dāng)有利 于學(xué)習(xí)者掌握、了解新知識、新信息

5、，有利于學(xué)習(xí)者増強(qiáng)創(chuàng)新意識、 培養(yǎng)實踐能力、形成自學(xué)能力，也有利于學(xué)習(xí)者學(xué)以致用、解決實 際工作中所遇到的問題c具有如此特點的苫，我們雖然沿用了“教 材,這個概念，但它與那神僅供教師講、學(xué)生聽，教師不講、學(xué)生不 t■，以“教?為中心的教科書相比，已經(jīng)在內(nèi)容安排、形式體例，行文 風(fēng)格等方面都大不相同了。希望讀者對此有所了解，以便從一開 始就樹立起依靠自己學(xué)習(xí)的堡定信念，不斷探索適合自己的學(xué)習(xí) 方法，充分利用已有的知識基礎(chǔ)和實際工作經(jīng)驗，最大限度弛發(fā)揮 白己的潛能達(dá)到學(xué)習(xí)的目標(biāo)。 歡迎讀者提出意見和建議。 祝每一位讀者自學(xué)成功。 全國高等教育自學(xué)考試指導(dǎo)委員會 1999 年 出版說明

6、騙寫高等教育自學(xué)考試教材是高等教育自學(xué)考試工作的一項 藻本建設(shè)。經(jīng)國家教育委員會同意，我們擬有計劃、有步衆(zhòng)地組 織編寫一批高等教育自學(xué)考試教材，以満足社會自學(xué)和適應(yīng)考試 的需要。《英語詞匯學(xué)〉是為高峰墩育自學(xué)考試英語專業(yè)地編的 -套教材中的一種。這本教材是根據(jù)專業(yè)考試計刼，從造就和選 拔人才的需要出發(fā)，按照全國高等教育自學(xué)考試指導(dǎo)委員會鏡布 的《英語詞匯學(xué)自學(xué)考試大綱》的要求，堵合自學(xué)考試的特點， 組織毫等院校1些專家學(xué)者集體編寫而成的。 英語專業(yè)〈英語詞匯學(xué)〉自學(xué)考試敎材，是供個人自學(xué)、社 會助學(xué)和國家考試使用的。現(xiàn)組織專家審定同意予以出版發(fā)行。 我們相信，H!著商教自學(xué)考試教材的陸埃出版

7、，必將對我図高等 數(shù)育亨*的發(fā)展，保證自學(xué)考試的質(zhì)量起到積極的促進(jìn)作用。 編寫高等數(shù)育自學(xué)考試教材是一種新的嘗試，希墊得到社會 各方面的關(guān)懷和支持，使它在使用中不斷提高和日膝完看。 全國高等赦育自學(xué)考試指導(dǎo)奏員會 一元兀六年八月 編者的話 “英語詞匯學(xué)”是全國高等教育自學(xué)考試英語語言文學(xué)專業(yè) 本科段課程，是為培養(yǎng)和檢驗自學(xué)應(yīng)考者?詞匯學(xué)的基本理論知識 和實際語言能力而設(shè)置的一門專業(yè)課程?！队⒄Z詞匯學(xué)〉是專門 為本睬程編寫的教材，主要內(nèi)容包括： 一、 詞匯的基本知識（第一章）； 二、 英語的親屬關(guān)系與英語詞匯的形成和發(fā)展（第二章）； 三、 間的形態(tài)錯構(gòu)和構(gòu)成方式（第三、四章）；

8、 四、 詞的意義、語義關(guān)系和詞義的演變（第五、六、七、八 章）； 五、 英語習(xí)語（第九章）； 六、 英語詞典（第十章）。 本敎材是根據(jù)髙等教育自學(xué)考試指導(dǎo)委員會1995年制訂的 英語專業(yè)考試計劃有關(guān)英語詞匯學(xué)的規(guī)定和要求編寫的。對象是 已獲得大專學(xué)歷進(jìn)入本科段學(xué)習(xí)、具有較好的語言基礎(chǔ)知識的自 學(xué)應(yīng)考者行考慮到廣大讀者自學(xué)的特點，本教材注意理論剛述簡 潔明了，語言通俗易WL 本教材包括詞匯學(xué)應(yīng)有的基本內(nèi)容，在全面介紹通匯學(xué)知識 的同時，力求突出實踐性和實用性.因此抵棄理論性較強(qiáng)的個別 知識點，比如“語義成分分析二 對于重復(fù)或可有可無的內(nèi)容， 如“美國英語”也不進(jìn)行專題論述。因為美國英活是

9、英語的一部 分，其內(nèi)容已分散在其它各章節(jié)。修辭格在本教材中也未獨(dú)立成 章，而與本課程有關(guān)章節(jié)有機(jī)地結(jié)合起來。 ** 。far峯米寞財工.Y-W-也律?*?-* ?*N?KSSS眼K拠賣?Mst!tt%&!.申暇 Y 遊任出JJE毋史 。玉領(lǐng)*—妄用-女E掉鞍檢津帥牢旋 X」風(fēng)aM瑚小譜WW需郴“査毎wm*祁枳爐.成槌ifcMs 田娥*?同一 EsuyH-H學(xué),窶溶呂條室柘苔鮮飛XK私 盡格％ 郵 4f**4

10、少専w 酔零M期孫Hta築咨曜05姻翅準(zhǔn)tfta.卷壬町ws*添竹 叵由*飯叵冬氽袒/耕齢樹魚teK卜工K-?#曜單**昭報 夂睨酔一剛?cè)缡腔刈辶?ifcesEK-裾3# ?翁肥的S址叵女 案二函*:蜷剤fr祐焊丘據(jù)地我^ss^s。妙皿需三 。四寒熾厘3?澈段輸K 編?teB<*ahk ?技建寂眼項左濤：t-aml?馨渡，一些-爛茹 $?!譽(yù)暇也<趣 wftTel。長 wffte窺工\害目.紫 XSE 左格加瑕同賺駆加刑域?哦SS演融。愁度盟3X移 潔#鰥恕快韮些底金嫁，#■四芯捻格.廿4探林。冢 寸爻后WIK-MTCS沌枠利樹添，-P ?旺徑WEW 告卻，曷金*繆?史戀蜩比窟秘Jr企段雷期

11、一」—?dú)獙Oy怎 。粉tsfM IS妹羞M(jìn)S.嶂截益其遂孑 25節(jié)「蛙S受?副聽聯(lián)汨蕓舊昏崖茄毯#四^能 S黑?壽fr嬢史咬戚躍.? o 生牧圖而感気番矩M ?如副?蘇也』*!皿匡^ss W?te舗云咨披表祉格辭汨 E舌」只破醐川 “K漫*圧咪{?應(yīng)ssft# Siioit Forms a(adj) AD. adv AmE adjective Anno Dotnini(a^*r Christ) adverb American English apprec Arab attr AusE B.C. BeackE

12、BrE CCELD CEO appreciative Arabic attributive Australian English Before Christ Black English British English Colli ns Cobuild English Language Dictionary( 1987) A C/iinese-Eng/ish Dictionary, Revised Edition (1995) CH CH Di&l COD colioq conj DAJ derog det E Chinese Chinese dialect Th^

13、Concise Oxford Dictionary{ 1982) colloquial conjunction A Dictionary of American Woms( 1975) derogatory determiner English  e-B- esp, et a! etc. euph F fig G Gr exempli grati&(for example) especially et alii(and others) et cetera(and on) euphemism French figurative German Greek Hin

14、ibid i. e. inf int IrE IT Jap L L2 LDC Hindi ibidemt from the same source) id est(that is) infinitive interjection Jrist English Italian Japanese Latin second language Iqngman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1987) n(N) n-ed noun noun + ed num ODCIE numeral Oxford Dictionary of

15、 Current Idiomatic English , Vol. 2,1983 OE OF ON Per Old English Old French Old Norse Persian poss possessive prep preposition pron pronoun rev. revised ScotE Scottish English Sb Somebody Sp Spanish StandE Standard English Sth Something Russ Russian Tib Tibetan V verb

16、 v-ed past participle v-er verb + er vi intransitive verb v*ing verb 十 ing vol volume vt transitive verb WBD The World Book Dieticmary {1931) WNWD Webster $ New World Dictionary of the American I^anf(uafie{ 1980) WNDS Webster1 s New Diriionary of S^onymif 1978) WTNID Webster9 s T

17、hird New Intemaiional Dictionary of the American Language (1961) CONTENTS Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Bask Concepts of Words and Vocabolary 6 1.1 What Is a Word 6 1.2 Sound and Meaning 7 1.3 Sound and Form 8 1.4 Vocabulary 10 1.5 Classification of Words 10 1.5.1 Basic Word

18、 Stock and Nonbaaic Vocabulary 11 1.5.2 Contem Words and Functional Words 16 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words 17 Questions and Tasks 20 Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary 23 2.1 The Indo-European Language Family 23 2.2 A Historical Overview of the English Vocab

19、ulary …25 2.21 Old English(450-1150) 25 2.2.2 Middle English( 11504500) 26 2.2.3 Modern English( 1500 up to now) 28 2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 30 2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 31 Quesiions and Tasks 33 Chapter 3 Word Formation I 37 3.1 Morphemes 37 3

20、.2 Allomorphs 38 3.3 Typ< of Morphemes 39 3.3.1 Frc<* Morphemes 39 3.3.2 Bound Morphemes 39 3.4 Root nnd Stem 42 Questions and Tasks 44 Chapter 4 Word Formation II 45 4.1 Affixation 46 4.1 1 Prefixation 46 4.1.2 Suffixation 48 4.2 Compounding 51 4.2. 1 Ch

21、aracteristics of Compounds 52 4.2.2 Formation of Compounds 53 4.3 Conversion 56 4.4 Blending 63 4.5 Clipping 64 4.6 Acronymy * 65 4.6.1 Initial嗣ms * 66 4.6.2 Acronyms 66 4.7 Back-formal ion 67 4.8 Words from Proper Names 69 Questions and Tasks 73 Chapter 5 W

22、nrd Meaning 81 5.1 The Meanings of * Meaning 8L 5-11 Reference 81 5.1.2 Concept 82 5.1.3 Sense 83 5.2 Motivation 83 5.2.1 Onomatopoeic Motivation 83 5.2.2 Morphological Motivation 84 5.2.3 Semantic Motivation 85 5.2.4 Etymological Motivation 85 5.3 Type> of Meani

23、ng 85 5.3. 】Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 86 5.3 2 Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning ??- 87 Questions and Tasks 92 Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field 95 6 1 Polysemy 95 6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 96 6.1.2 Two Processes of Development 98

24、 6.2 Homonymy 100 6.2.1 Types of Homonyms 100 6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms 101 6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemant 102 6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms 102 6.3 Synonymy ……?，… … 1。3 6.3. I Definition of Synonyms 104 6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 104 6.3.3 Sources o

25、f Synonyms 105 6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms 107 6.4 Antonymy 111 6.4.1 Type* of Antonyms 111 6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms 114 6.4 3 The Use of Antonyms 116 6.5 Hyponymy * ?????? 117 6-6 Semantic Field 119 Questions and Tasks 123 Chapter 7 Ch

26、anges in Word Meaning 134 7.1 Types of Changes 135 2 7.1.1 Extension 135 7.1.2 Narrowing 137 7.1.3 Elevation 138 7.1.4 Degradation 139 7.2 Causes o( Changes 141 7.2.1 Extra-linguistic Factors 141 7.2.2 Linguistic Factors 144 Questions and Tasks 145 Chapter 8 Me

27、aning and Context 149 8. 1 Types of Context 149 8.1.1 Extra-linguistic Context 150 81.2 Linguistic Context 152 8.2 The Role of Context 154 8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity 155 8.2.2 Indication of Referents 156 8.2.3 Provision of Clues* for Inferring Word-meaning …157 Que

28、stions and Tasks 159 Chapter 9 English Idioms 162 9.1 Characteristics of Idioms 162 9.1.1 Semantic Unity 162 9.1.2 Structural Stability 163 9-2 Classification of Idioms 165 9.2.1 Idioms Nominal in Nature 165 9.2.2 Idioms Adjectival in Nature 166 9.2.3 Idioms Verb

29、al in Nature 166 9.2.4 Idioms Adverbial in Nature * 168 9.2.5 Sentence Idioms 168 9.3 Use of Idioms 169 9.3. \ Stylistic Features 169 9.3.2 RhetoricaJ Features 173 9.3.3 Variaiions of Idioms 176 Questions and Tasks 179 Chapter 10 English Dictionaries [84 10. 1 Types

30、of Dictionaries 134 10.1.1 Monolingual and Bilingual Dictionaries 184 10. 1.2 Linguistic and Encyclopedic Dictionaries 185 10.1.3 Unabridged.Desk and Pocket Dictionaries 186 10 1.4 Specialized Dictionaries 188 10 2 Use of Dictionaries 188 10.2.1 Choice of Dictionaries 188

31、10.2.2 Content of the Dictionary 191 10.2.3 Use o the Dictionary 194 10 3 Three Good General Dictionaries 195 10.3.1 Ixtngman Dictionary of Contemporary English(.LDCE) New Edition(1987) 195 10.3.2 ColUna COBUILD English Language Dictionary (CCELD) (1987) 198 10.3.3 A Chinese-Eng

32、lish Dictionary (Revised Edition) (CED) (1995) 200 Questions and Tasks * …… 202 Su^ested Answers 205 Reference Books 222 英語詢匯學(xué)術(shù)語英漢對照裏 227 后記 238 英語詞匯學(xué)自學(xué)考試大綱 239 5 Introduction 0.1 The Nature and Domain of English Lexicology Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into

33、the origins and meanings of words ( WNWD). English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented c

34、ourse. It 2 chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and study a great many usage examples. Naturally, there w

35、ill be a large quantity of practice involved. 0.2 Its Relation to Other Disciplines English lexicology itself is a subbranch of linguistics. But it embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography. Eflch of them has been established &s a disc

36、ipline in its own right. Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of movpheme construct. This is one of the major concerns of lexicology, for we shall discuss the irifleclions of words and word-fonnation and exani- ine how morphem

37、es are combined to form words and words to form sentences. Etym&ogy is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. Modem English is deli ved from the lanRuage$ of early Germanic tribes with a fairly small vocabulary. We shall study how this small v

38、ocabulary has grown into a huge modern English vocabulary and explain the changes that have taken place in the forms and meanings of words. Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. But lexicology will focus on the lexical level. T

39、he types of meaning and sense relations such as polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and semantic field all belong to the scope of semantic study and constitute an important part of lexicology. Stylistics is the study of style. It is concerned with the users choices of linguistic eleme

40、nts in a particular context for special effects. Among the areas of study： lexis, phonology, syntax, graphology. we shall concentrate on lexis, exploring the stylistic values of words. Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they h

41、ave a pragmatic difference. A lexicographer^ task is to record the lan giiagc as it is used so as to present the genuine picture of words to the reader, providing authoritative reference, whereas the student of lexicology is to acquire the knowledge and information of lexis so as to increase their l

42、exical awareness and capacity of language use. Though English lexicology has a wide coverage of academic areas, our task is definite and consistent. That is to study English words in different aspects and from different angles. 0.3 Methods of Study There are generally two approaches to the study

43、 of words, namely synchronic and diachronic. From a synchronic point of view, words can be studied nt a point in time, disregarding wliat- ever changes might be taking place. For example. the word wife now means a married woman, esp. in relation to her husb/ind*. This is the current meaning. It has

44、an obsolete meaning 1 woman*. which is only preserved in midwife housriuift, etc. However, if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning. In this light, the word zvife evolved from the Old English form wif, meani

45、ng * woman, but later it became specialized in tbc course of development to the modern meaning *a married woman. In our linguistic inquiry into the English vocabulary, though our focus is on the synchronic description of words, we need the diachronic approach as a supplement, for a knowledge of hi

46、storical develop， ment of (he vocabulary will definitely he of great help to us in our language study. 0.4 Aims and Significance of the Course language study involves the study of speech sounds, grammar and vocebultiry. Vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult.

47、 In the discussion of the relationship be* tween words and structure, Wilkins〈1972) asserts, * Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. * The lexicologist McCarthy (1990) echoed the same message that no matter how well the student learns grammar, no ma

48、tter how succe漆hilly he masters the sounds of a L2, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in that language cannot happen in any meaningful way. The role of vooibu- lary in communication calls for continuing vocabulary learning. Since English Lexicology deals with English v

49、ocabulary, this course will definitely be beneficial. A good knowledge of morphological structure of English words and ryle of word-form at ion will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the prin

50、ciples of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding of the semantic strncn>re; of words, the types of meaning and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning

51、 and usages, and enable them to use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve learners * skills o( using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study. In a word, the study of lexicology will ultimately imp

52、rove learners* receptive and productive skills in language processing as well as language production. Language teachers will find lexicology even more helpful. With some knowledge of lexicology. they will be able to handle the teach- ing materials, particularly those concerning words more profess

53、ion- stly. They will be able to select mid organize materials to teach in a rnore effective way. For example, they can teach the rules of wordformation bit by bit and raise the students awareness of structures of words jio as to help them learn new words more quickly and remember better. They will

54、 be able Io make use of the different sense relations to group vocabulary, interpret words and explain meanings to the students. Their knowledge of dictionaries will prove invalu- Hble in their study and teaching as well. One or two good dictionar- 4 ics plus skills of use will give a teacher eas

55、e, confidence and efficiency- Questions and Tasks 1. What is lexicology? 2. What is the nature and scope of English Lexicology? 3. What subjects is English Lexicology correlated with? And to what extent? 4. Why should a student of English study English Lexicology? 5 Chapter Busic Concepts

56、 of Words and Vocabulax*y Before we attempt any detailed discussion, it is necessary to clarify some basic concepts conceding words and vocabulary. The term ivord is an elusive notion, which detnands careful consideration at the outset. The relation between sound and meaning, between sound and for

57、m, and between words and vocabulary requires some discussion as well. In addition, we shall consider a few commonly recognised criteria for vocabulary classification and study each class of words to some extent in this chapter 1.1 What Is a Word Whot is a word? This question has occupied the atten

58、tion of lin- guiM5 for ages. Although numerous definitions have been suggested. none of them seem to be perfect. Scholars still do not agree on rhe definition of the word. When we talk about a word, we tend to think in visual terms. In this line u word can be defined as a meaningful group of letter

59、s printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper. As defined in terms of spoken language, a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds which are made voluntanly with human vocal equipment. According to semamicists. a word is a unit of meaning. Grammarians, however, insist that a w

60、ord be a free form that can function in a sentence, etc. To sum up, the definition of a word 6 comprises the following points： (Da minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. Therefore ( we can say that * a word i

61、s a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function*. Words can be simple and complex, yet all must comply with these criteria. Man and fine are simple, but they each have sound, meaning and syntactic function, and each can be used alone in a sentence. Na

62、turally they are words. There are words which are complex such as mis- far ? tune and man ? age? ment . Both are polysyllabic words and can function as * subject *, 1 object * and predictive, in a sentence. Though misfortune can be further divided as mis- and fortune , the former cannot stand alon

63、e as ft word. Similarly, manageni^nl sn be broken down as manage and ment , the latter cannot be used freely, either. Blackmail can be separated into black and mail , and both can work as independent units in a sentence ,the meaning of each, however, is by no means the combination of the two. Blac

64、k is a colour, opposite to 4 white*, and mail denotes * something sent by post. yet when they are put together, the combined form means * compel, compulsion, to make payment or action in return for concealment of discreditable secrets etc. Hence Mackmail is 8 different word (COD). 1.2 Souud and Mea

65、ning A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world. Each oi the worlds cultures has come to agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities outside the language system This symbolic connection 7 i almost always arbitra

66、ry, and there is * no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itadf9 (Lodwig and Barrett 1973). A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three kttcrs that make up the word just automatically suggest the nnimal in question. h is only symbolic. The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to