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外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯
壓力容器和它的構(gòu)件
壓力容器是密封容器設(shè)備，它們有著各種各樣尺寸和形狀。較小的壓力容器直徑遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)小于一英寸，而較大的壓力容器直徑可能達(dá)到或者超過150英尺。某些是埋在地下或海洋深處，大多數(shù)是安在地上或支撐在平臺(tái)上，還有一些實(shí)際上是在航空飛行器中的儲(chǔ)槽和液壓裝置里。
壓力容器的內(nèi)壓，同它的尺寸以及形狀一樣，也是多種多樣。1大氣壓(at m)=0.101325兆帕(MPa)=14.696磅/英寸2(psi)
內(nèi)壓可能小到1英寸水柱靜壓，也可以高到300000磅/英寸2，甚至更高。對(duì)于單層結(jié)構(gòu)壓力容器，通常的壓力范圍為15到5000磅/英寸2，但是也有好多低于或者超出這個(gè)范圍。ASME 鍋爐和壓力容器規(guī)程第八部分第一節(jié)詳細(xì)列出了一系列內(nèi)壓值，這些內(nèi)壓最小為15psi，最大沒有限制；但是根據(jù)ASME鍋爐和壓力容器規(guī)程第八部分第一節(jié)，內(nèi)壓超過3000 psi的需要進(jìn)行特殊設(shè)計(jì)。
壓力容器的典型構(gòu)件描述如下：
圓柱形筒體 在石油化工業(yè)中使用的壓力容器在建造時(shí)主要采用圓柱形筒體這種模式。這種結(jié)構(gòu)便于制作，安裝以及維修經(jīng)濟(jì)。圓柱形筒體的厚度主要取決于內(nèi)壓的大小，在一些情況下，也需要考慮外加負(fù)載荷以及外壓的因素。其他因素，比如熱應(yīng)力、不連續(xù)應(yīng)力對(duì)圓柱形筒體的厚度也可能有影響。
成形加工封頭 對(duì)于封頭以及過渡區(qū)，工程師可以有多種選擇。在選擇具體用哪種而不用哪種時(shí)，主要考慮以下因素：成形方法，材料成本，工藝條件的要求，制造的難易程度以及空間限制。對(duì)受均勻內(nèi)壓封頭的強(qiáng)度計(jì)算，由于封頭和筒體連接，所以不僅需要考慮封頭本身因內(nèi)壓引起的薄膜應(yīng)力，還要考慮與圓筒相連接處的不連續(xù)應(yīng)力。連接處總應(yīng)力的大小與封頭的幾何形狀和尺寸，封頭與圓筒厚度的比值大小有關(guān)。但在導(dǎo)出封頭厚度設(shè)計(jì)公式時(shí)，主要利用內(nèi)壓薄膜應(yīng)力作為依據(jù)，而將因不連續(xù)效應(yīng)產(chǎn)生的應(yīng)力增強(qiáng)影響以應(yīng)力增強(qiáng)系數(shù)的形式引入厚度計(jì)算式中。應(yīng)力增強(qiáng)系數(shù)由有力矩理論解析導(dǎo)出，并輔以實(shí)驗(yàn)修正。一些經(jīng)常使用的成形的封頭是：
凸形封頭 這種封頭一般用于低壓操作的壓力容器，比如油箱，鍋爐。當(dāng)直徑較小時(shí)也可用于壓力很高的壓力容器。具體設(shè)計(jì)及制造的詳細(xì)資料見ASME 鍋爐和壓力容器規(guī)程第八部分第一節(jié)。
半球形封頭 通常，半球形封頭的厚度取決于給定的溫度和壓力，而壓力為同一直徑和材料的圓柱形筒體壓力的一半。建造材料為貴的合金，比如鎳、鈦或者鍍鎳、鈦的固體時(shí)，半球形封頭節(jié)約成本。假如用的是碳素鋼，那么這種封頭就不比法蘭以及碟形封頭節(jié)約成本，這主要是因?yàn)樗腻懺斐杀竞芨?。半球形封頭通常由弓形的楔形構(gòu)件拼焊或是鉚接或是旋壓而成。由于半球形封頭比與之相接的圓柱形筒體要薄，因此，封頭與筒體之間的過渡區(qū)必須逐漸變化，以減小不連續(xù)應(yīng)力的影響。
橢圓形封頭，碟形封頭 （法蘭和半球形）封頭 這些封頭在壓力容器中應(yīng)用廣泛。它們的厚度一般與相連接的筒體一樣，這樣能夠明顯的減少堆焊。橢圓形封頭是由半個(gè)橢球面和短圓筒組成。直邊段的作用是避免封頭和圓筒的連接焊縫處出現(xiàn)經(jīng)向曲率半徑突變，以改善焊縫的受力狀況。由于封頭的橢球部分經(jīng)線曲率變化平滑連續(xù)，故應(yīng)力分布比較均勻，且橢圓形封頭深度較半球形封頭小得多，易于沖壓成型，是目前中、低壓容器中應(yīng)用較多的封頭之一。蝶形封頭是帶折邊的球面封頭，由半徑為R的球面體、半徑為r的過渡環(huán)殼和短圓筒等三部分組成。從幾何形狀看，蝶形封頭是不連續(xù)曲面，在經(jīng)線曲率半徑突變的兩個(gè)曲面連接處，由于曲率的較大變化而存在著較大邊緣彎曲應(yīng)力。該邊緣彎曲應(yīng)力與薄膜應(yīng)力疊加，使該部分的應(yīng)力遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)高于其他部位，故受力狀況不佳。但過渡環(huán)殼的存在降低了封頭的深度，方便了成型加工，且壓制蝶形封頭的鋼模加工簡(jiǎn)單，使蝶形封頭的應(yīng)用范圍較為廣泛。因折邊區(qū)以外的區(qū)域所需的厚度小于封頭的實(shí)際厚度，這樣，多余的部分就可以用于這些區(qū)域的接管補(bǔ)強(qiáng)。由于好多制造廠家都能生產(chǎn)不同直徑和厚度的這樣的封頭，因此價(jià)格比較低。
錐形封頭，折邊錐形封頭 這些封頭主要用于直立以及塔狀壓力容器的底部封頭或者做為不同尺寸的圓柱筒體間的過渡。在錐形封頭的設(shè)計(jì)中，由于錐形封頭與筒體結(jié)合處的非均衡應(yīng)力，在設(shè)計(jì)中，我們必須對(duì)此進(jìn)行考慮。由于結(jié)構(gòu)不連續(xù)，錐殼的應(yīng)力分布并不理想，但其特殊的結(jié)構(gòu)形式有利于固體顆粒和懸浮或粘稠液體的排放，可作為不同直徑圓筒的中間過渡段，因而在中、低壓容器中使用較為普遍。錐殼的強(qiáng)度由錐殼部分內(nèi)壓引起的薄膜應(yīng)力和錐殼兩端與圓筒連接處的邊緣應(yīng)力決定。錐殼設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)，應(yīng)分別計(jì)算錐殼厚度、錐殼大端和小端加強(qiáng)段厚度。若考慮只有一種厚度組成時(shí)，則取上述各部分厚度中的最大值。由于這么高的應(yīng)力存在，當(dāng)錐形封頭受內(nèi)部壓力時(shí)，ASME 鍋爐和壓力容器規(guī)程Ⅷ-1限定錐形的最大頂角不能超過30°。當(dāng)頂角大于30°時(shí)，必須進(jìn)行不連續(xù)應(yīng)力分析；或者采用折邊錐形封頭來避免結(jié)合處的非均衡應(yīng)力。
法蘭蓋，平蓋板，凸形平蓋 壓力容器的一種經(jīng)常采用的封頭方式是可拆卸的平頭或者平蓋。這種封頭方式即不是同殼體一起鍛造也不是焊接到殼體上，而是采用螺栓或者其他易拆卸裝置來固定。平蓋厚度計(jì)算式以圓平板應(yīng)力分析為基礎(chǔ)的。在理論分析時(shí)平板的周邊支承被視為固支或簡(jiǎn)支，但實(shí)際上平蓋與圓筒連接時(shí)，真實(shí)的支承既不是固支也不是簡(jiǎn)支，而是介于固支和簡(jiǎn)支之間。因此工程計(jì)算時(shí)常采用圓平板理論為基礎(chǔ)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)公式，通過系數(shù)K來體現(xiàn)平蓋周邊的支承情況，K值越小平蓋周邊越接近固支；反之就越接近于簡(jiǎn)支。它可能是圓形，方形，長(zhǎng)方形或者其他形狀。那些圓形扁平封頭在用螺栓固定時(shí)采用的墊圈就是法蘭蓋。通常，用螺栓將法蘭固定到壓力容器的法蘭上，兩法蘭之間加入墊圈。雖然扁平封頭以及蓋板可以是圓形的也可以是非圓形的，但是它們通常具有一樣的厚度。
開孔和接管 所有的過程容器裝備都需要開孔以便將物質(zhì)導(dǎo)入及導(dǎo)出。對(duì)于一些壓力容器，由于所盛物質(zhì)較大或者一些內(nèi)部部件需要經(jīng)常更替，因此需要移除整個(gè)封頭或者殼體的一部分以便開孔通暢。但是，對(duì)于大多數(shù)壓力容器，進(jìn)入和流出封頭開口以及殼體的物質(zhì)都是通過管口或者接管。除了這些開孔之外，我們也需要開另外一些孔，比如那些供人出入的人孔。人孔的結(jié)構(gòu)形式主要決定于操作壓力，操作介質(zhì)和啟用的頻繁程度。根據(jù)使用要求，常用的人孔的結(jié)構(gòu)形式有：常壓平蓋人孔、受壓人孔、快開人孔等。另外一些開孔是在外面檢查壓力容器時(shí)的手孔，還有其他一些為了清洗容器以及泄放而開的孔。手孔最簡(jiǎn)單的結(jié)構(gòu)形式是在接管上安裝一塊盲板，這種結(jié)構(gòu)用于常壓和低壓，以及不需要經(jīng)常打開的場(chǎng)合。需要快速啟閉的手孔，應(yīng)設(shè)置快速壓緊裝置。這些開空不一定都有接管相連。有些時(shí)候，只用蓋子將其孔封住，比如人孔蓋、手孔蓋，它們通過螺栓或者焊接的方式與殼體固定。
支座 支座是用來支承容器及設(shè)備重量，并使其固定在某一位置的壓力容器附件。在某些場(chǎng)合還受到風(fēng)載荷、地震載荷等動(dòng)載荷的作用。壓力容器支座的結(jié)構(gòu)形式很多，根據(jù)容器自身的安裝形式，支座可以分為兩大類：立式容器支座和臥式容器支座。立式容器有耳式支座、支承式支座、腿式支座和裙式支座等四種支座。大多數(shù)立式容器用裙座支座。利用群座支座壓力容器是很經(jīng)濟(jì)的，因?yàn)樗梢酝ㄟ^剪切作用來轉(zhuǎn)移壓力容器的荷載。它們也可以通過錨定螺栓以及墊板將壓力容器的荷載轉(zhuǎn)移到底座上。腿式支座壓力容器一般質(zhì)量輕，而且腿式支撐能夠很容易提供到達(dá)壓力容器底部的入口。最經(jīng)濟(jì)的設(shè)計(jì)就是腿部支撐和容器直接相連，荷載可以通過剪切作用直接轉(zhuǎn)移。水平壓力容器的支撐一般為鞍式支撐。為了防止由于殼體太薄而不能將荷載轉(zhuǎn)移到鞍式支撐上，需要增加補(bǔ)強(qiáng)圈，也需要考慮熱膨脹的問題。
Pressure Vessels and Their Components
Pressure Vessels are leakproof containers, They are made in all sizes and shapes．The smaller ones may be no larger than a fraction of an inch in diameter，whereas the larger vessels may be 150 ft or more in diameter．Some are buried in the ground or deep in the ocean；most are positioned on the ground or supported on platforms; and some actually are found in storage tanks and hydraulic units in aircraft。
The internal pressure to which process equipment is designed is as varied as the size and shape. Internal pressure may be as low as 1 in. water gage pressure to as high as 300000 psi or more. The usual range of pressure for monoblock construction is about 1 5 to about 5000 psi, although there are many vessels designed for pressure below and above that range． The ASME Boiler and Pressure code，Section Viii，Division 1，specifies a range of internal pressure from 15 psi at the bottom to no upper limit；however，at an internal pressure above 300 psi, the ASME Code, VIII-1, requires that special design considerations may be necessary.
Typical components of pressure vessels are described below．
Cylindrical Shell Cylindrical shell is very frequently used for constructing pressure vessels in the petrochemical industry. It is easy to fabricate and install and economical to maintain. The required thickness is generally controlled by internal pressure，although in some instances applied loads and external pressure have contro1. Other factors such as thermal stress and discontinuity forces may also influence the required thickness．
Formed Heads A large variety of end closures and transition sections are available to the design engineer. Using one configuration versus another depends on many factors such as method of forming, material cost，and space restriction. Subject to uniform internal pressure of the head of the strength calculation, as the cylinder head and connected, so need to take into account not only the head itself, caused by internal pressure due to film stress, but also connected with the cylinder Department discontinuous stress. Total stress junction head size and the geometric shape and size, and cylinder head thickness ratio of the size. However, the thickness of the head design derived formula, the main use of the internal pressure based on thin-film stress, and will have a discontinuous effect of stress in order to enhance the impact of stress to enhance the form factor calculation in the introduction of the thickness. Stress enhanced by the torque coefficient is derived analytic theory, and experiment with the amendment.
Some frequently used formed heads are:
Flanged Heads These heads are normally found in vessels operating at low pressure such as gasoline tanks, and boilers. They are also used in high pressure applications where the diameter is small. Various details for their design and construction are given by the ASME, Code, VIII一1.
Hemispherical Heads . Generally，the required thickness of hemispherical heads due to a given temperature and pressure is one-half that of cylindrical shells with equivalent diameter and material. Hemispherical heads are very economical when constructed of expensive alloys such as nickel and titanium — either solid or clad. In carbon steel, however, they are not as economical as flanged and dished heads because of the high cost of fabrication．Hemispherical heads are normally fabricated from segmental “gore” sections or by spinning or pressing. Because hemispherical heads are thinner than cylindrical shells to which they are attached，the transition area between the heads and shell must be contoured so as to minimize the effect of discontinuity stress．
Elliptical and Torispherical (Flanged and Dished)Heads These heads are very popular in pressure vessels. Their thickness is usually the same as the cylinder to which they are attached．This reduces considerably the weld build-up．Elliptical head is a short half-ellipsoid and cylinder components. Section of straight edge is to avoid head and the cylinder appeared weld connection to the radius of curvature, as mutations in order to improve the situation of the weld force. As the head part of the warp ellipsoidal smooth continuous changes in curvature, so the stress is distributed more evenly, and the depth of the oval head much smaller than the hemispherical head, easy to press molding, is currently in the application of more low-pressure vessel closure the first one. Butterfly is the band head of the spherical head fold, from a radius of R of the spherical body, the transition radius r and a short cylindrical shell ring is composed of three parts and so on. From the geometry, the butterfly is not straight head surface, mutations in the meridian radius of curvature of the junction of two surfaces, due to the curvature of the larger changes in the edge of the existence of a greater bending stress. The edge bending stress and membrane stress superposition, so that part of the stress is much higher than other parts of the body, it forces poor. However, the existence of the transition ring shell reduces the depth of the head to facilitate the molding process, and the suppression of the steel head butterfly processing simple, so that head butterfly wider range of applications.
Thus，because the required thickness in areas away from the knuckle region is less than the furnished thickness, the excess can be advantageously used in reinforcing nozzles in these areas. Many mills can furnish such heads in various diameters and thickness that are competitive in price.
Conical and Toriconical Heads These heads are used in hoppers and towers as bottomed closures or as transition sections between cylinders with different diameters. The cone-to-cylinder junction must be considered as part of the cone design due to the high unbalanced forces at the junction．As a result of the discontinuous, conical shell of the stress distribution is not ideal, but the structure of their particular form of benefit and suspended solid particles or viscous liquid emissions, different diameter cylinders can be used as an intermediate transition section, therefore, more commonly used in the low-pressure containers. Conical heads strength in part from pressure caused by stress and cone shell membrane and the cylinder at both ends of the edge junction stress decision. Cone shell design, the calculation should be the thickness of cone shell, cone shell big and strengthen paragraph little-end thickness. If we are to consider the thickness of only one component, then check the above part of the maximum thickness.
Because of these high forces，the ASME Code, Ⅷ-1, limits the apex angle to a maximum of 30°when the cone is subjected to internal pressure. Above30℃ discontinuity analysis is done or a toriconical head used to avoid the unbalanced forces at the junction.
Blind Flanges，Cover Plates，and Flanges One of the more common types of closures for pressure vessels is the unstayed flat head or cover. This may be either integrally formed with the shell or welded to the shell，or it may be attached by bolts or some quick-opening device . . Calculate the thickness of flat cover plate to a round-based stress analysis. In the theoretical analysis of the surrounding support plate is considered clamped or simply supported, but in fact covered with the cylindrical flat connection, the real is neither supporting nor clamped simply supported, but between clamped and simply supported the Inter. Therefore often used engineering calculation based on the theory of a round plate of the empirical formula, through the coefficient K to reflect the level of support to build the surrounding circumstances, K value the more the closer Xiaoping cover clamped around; the other hand the more closer to simply supported
It may be circular，square，rectangular，or some other shape. Those circular flat heads that are bolted into place utilizing a gasket are called blind flanges．Those circular flat heads that are bolted into place utilizing a gasket are called blind flanges．Although flat heads or blind flanges may be either circular or noncireular，they usually have uniform thickness.
Openings and Nozzles All process Vessels require openings to get the contents in and out. For some vessels，where the contents may be large or some of the internal parts may need frequent changing，access is made through large openings in which the entire head or a section of the shell is removed．However，for most process vessels, the contents enter and exit through openings in the heads and shell to which nozzles and piping are attached. In addition to these openings others may be required，such as those for personnel entering the vessel through a manway opening．Manhole structure mainly depends on operating pressure, operating medium and the frequency of opening. According to the use of requirements, commonly used in the form of manhole structure are as follows: pressure level manhole cover, manhole compression, fast and so open manhole.
Other openings may be necessary for inspecting the Vessel from outside through a handhole opening，and still others may be required for cleaning or draining the vessel. Hand-hole structure of the simplest forms is installed in a blind to take over the board, such a structure for the atmospheric pressure and low-voltage, and do not have regular open forums. The need for rapid hand headstock hole, clamping device should be set up quickly.
These openings do not always have a nozzle located at the opening. Sometimes the closure may be a manway cover or handhole cover that is either directly welded or attached to the vessel by bolts.
Supports Bearing is used to support the weight of containers and equipment, and to a fixed location in a pressure vessel annex. In some occasions, also affected by wind loads, seismic loads, such as the role of dynamic load. Pressure vessel, the structure of so many forms of support, according to the installation of its own form of container, support can be divided into two categories: vertical and horizontal bearing container bearing containers. Vertical container ear-type bearing, the bearing-type support, leg support and the skirt four bearing-type bearing.
Most vertical vessels are supported by skirts．
Skirts are economical because they generally transfer the loads from the Vessel by shear action．They also transfer the loads to the foundation through anchor bolts and bearing plates. Leg-supported vessels are normally lightweight and the legs provide easy access to the bottom of the vessel. An economic design is that the legs attach directly to the Vessel and the 1oads are transferred by shear action. Horizontal vessels are normally supported by saddles. Stiffening rings may be required if the shell is too thin to transfer the loads to the saddles. The problem of the thermal expansion must be considered.